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地球科学 1912

《海陆的起源》

阿尔弗雷德·魏格纳

各大陆能像撕开的地图般拼合——它们曾是一整块。

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In depth · the introduction

看一眼世界地图:南美洲东侧的隆起,恰好嵌进非洲西侧的凹陷,活像一页纸被撕成的两半。魏格纳说,这绝非偶然——它们曾经是一体。

把这个想法拆开看

魏格纳提出,各大陆并非被钉死在原处。很久很久以前,它们曾紧紧挤作一整块巨大的陆地;此后,便缓缓漂移,散到了今天的位置。

他并不只把论据押在海岸线上——那可能只是碰巧——而是押在大西洋两岸的岩石与化石如何彼此「接续」上:就好像你把一页印好的报纸撕成两半,却发现那些字行仍笔直地跨过裂口、连成一气。

一个「越界」的气象学家

魏格纳是气象学家、是极地探险家,而非地质学家。1912 年 1 月 6 日,在法兰克福,他站到地质学会面前,主张大陆会移动——并在同年发表了这一想法。其后二十年,他不断搜集证据,把它扩充成一本书《海陆的起源》,前后出了四版。多数地质学家拒绝了它:一来,他说不出究竟是什么力,能把一块大陆推过整个地球;二来,他是个「外行」。1930 年,他在格陵兰冰盖上辞世,学说仍未获平反。

它为何重要

魏格纳是对的,而几乎所有人都错了——这在科学史上,是难得而干净的一例。他看见了那个能把海岸线、山脉、化石与远古气候统统串起来的单一事实(大陆会移动),而且比任何人能解释「如何移动」早了整整四十年。当解释终于到来——洋底自身在扩张——它印证了他,并把整个地质学,围绕「移动的板块」重新组织起来。你脚下的大地,正是一块每年滑移几厘米的巨板的一部分,那速度,约莫和你指甲生长的速度相当。

撕开的报纸

这是魏格纳自己的比喻:想象把一张报纸撕成两半。要判断两片碎纸是否曾经相连,靠的不只是对齐那参差的撕边,更要看那些印刷的字行,是否笔直地跨过裂口连成一线。海岸线,就是那参差的撕边;而岩层与化石层,就是那一行行的字——它们对得上。

两块陆地——左为南美洲、右为非洲——隔着海洋。一个滑块把非洲拖回大西洋对岸;两条相对的海岸线被画成同一道吻合的撕裂边缘,缺口闭合时便彼此咬合。三条彩色带分别标示相互对应的山脉带、舌羊齿植物群与中龙,它们在两侧大陆边缘处于相同纬度;接缝合拢时,连接线把它们桥接起来,于是这些带便连续地跨过接合处。

之前与之后

大西洋两岸的吻合,几个世纪以来早有人留意——制图家亚伯拉罕·奥特柳斯(Abraham Ortelius)早在 1596 年就提出,美洲是从欧洲与非洲「撕扯」开来的——但这种相似,要么被一笑置之,要么被一座座「恰好」沉没的陆桥所搪塞。魏格纳之后,缺失的引擎终于补上:1960 年代,海底扩张与洋底的磁条带,把「大陆漂移」变成了「板块构造」——如今,地震、火山与山脉,都由这同一套框架来解释。

The original document
Original source text
Alfred Wegener (1880–1930) · first proposed in lectures and papers of 1912; developed in Die Entstehung der Kontinente und Ozeane (Vieweg, 1915; 4th ed. 1929)
The fit of the coasts
Wegener opens from a fact anyone can see on a globe: the Atlantic coastlines of South America and Africa run nearly parallel — the eastern bulge of Brazil matches the bight of the Gulf of Guinea. He insists this congruence is a clue to be tested, not a proof in itself.
It is just as if we were to refit the torn pieces of a newspaper by matching their edges and then check whether the lines of print run smoothly across. If they do, there is nothing left but to conclude that the pieces were in fact joined in this way.
(From the opening chapter, in John Biram's English translation of the fourth German edition.) The “lines of print” are the geological structures and fossils that must continue from one continent to the other if the two were once joined.
Pangaea
Reassembling the southern continents, Wegener reconstructs a single primeval landmass — in the 1920 edition he names it Pangaea, “all the Earth” — surrounded by one universal ocean, which begins to break apart from the Mesozoic onward as the fragments drift to their present places.
The lines of print: geology, fossils, climate
The evidence he assembles runs across the seam. Mountain belts and Precambrian shield rocks align on both Atlantic shores; the seed-fern Glossopteris is found across all the southern continents; Mesosaurus, a small freshwater reptile that could not cross an ocean, occurs only in Brazil and southern Africa. Late-Palaeozoic glacial deposits now lie in today's tropics while tropical coals lie near the poles — anomalies that resolve once the continents are reassembled around an ancient south-polar ice cap.
The unanswered question
Wegener proposed that the light continental blocks (which he called sial) drift through a denser substratum (sima), driven by a pole-fleeing force and by tidal attraction. He knew the forces he could name were weak, and conceded that the problem of the driving mechanism was still unsolved — the gap his critics would seize upon.
[ … ]
Marburg, 1912 — Greenland, 1930