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化学 1874

空间中的结构式

范托夫

碳的四个键指向四面体的四个顶点——分子由此有了立体的形状,有些还分出了「左手」与「右手」。

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In depth · the introduction

为什么你的右手永远塞不进一只左手手套——而这又能和一个糖分子扯上什么关系?

核心想法

化学家从前把分子画成平的:纸上一些字母,用线连起来。1874 年,一位 22 岁、名叫范托夫的年轻人坚持说,碳原子的四条键其实是伸进三维空间的——指向一个四面体(一座小小的三角锥)的四个顶点,碳就在正中。

这一步有个惊人的后果。如果接在一个碳上的四样东西全都不同,你就能用两种互为镜像的方式把这个分子搭起来——就像一只左手和一只右手。无论你怎么转动其中一个,它永远无法严丝合缝地叠到另一个上。这样的碳叫作不对称碳,那两个互为镜像的分子,就是它的两种形式。换句话说,分子是有形状的,有时还有「左右手」之分。

它是如何诞生的

线索藏在光的一种奇异性质里。有些物质在溶液中会扭转偏振光的振动面——一种向左,另一种在别处完全相同,却向右。1848 年,路易·巴斯德甚至在显微镜下用手把一种酒石酸盐的两种镜像晶体分了开来,可没人知道,分子骨子里究竟是什么让它有了手性。维斯利采努斯又用两种乳酸把谜题逼得更紧:它们在纸上一模一样,行为却不同。

还是学生的范托夫看出,一个四面体的碳恰好能解答这一切,于是发表了一本小册子。在巴黎,约瑟夫·勒贝尔在几周之内、用另一套论证得出了同样的结论。并非人人都买账:声望卓著的赫尔曼·科尔贝公开嘲笑这位无名青年,说他骑上「显然是从兽医学校借来的飞马」,去幻想原子在空间里的样子。结果范托夫是对的,并在 1901 年获得了化学领域有史以来的第一座诺贝尔奖——尽管,恰好是因为别的工作。

它为何重要

手性不是什么稀奇的小玩意,它就是生命被搭建起来的方式。你蛋白质里的氨基酸、你 DNA 里的糖,全是单一手性的,所以你的身体能轻而易举地分辨一对镜像分子。正因如此,一种药物和它的镜像孪生兄弟,行为可能截然不同——一个能治病,另一个或许毫无作用,甚至更糟。知道分子有形状,并能预测、控制自己造出的是哪一种手性,如今正是化学、生物学乃至整个制药业的核心。

一个可以想象的画面

举起你的两只手。零件相同——各有四指一拇,连接方式也一样——可它们互为镜像:任你怎么试,都没法把右手叠到左手上,让每根手指都对齐。一个带着四个不同基团的碳,正是这样。把四样东西里的一样换成重复的——给手添出第六根指头,其中两根一模一样、可以互换——镜像的把戏又灵了:现在两个版本是同一个。四个顶点上是四样不同的东西;这就是产生手性的全部条件。

可交互的立体化学模型:选择一个分子(CHFClBr、CH₃CHClBr、CH₂ClBr、CHCl₂Br);组件画出一个中心碳,四个基团位于四面体方向的键上——两条普通键、一条朝向观者的实楔形键、一条远离观者的虚线键——并在虚线镜面的另一侧画出它的镜像。四个基团都不同时,该碳为不对称碳:绿色圆环标示其手性,两个方向相反的弯箭头显示左右手性。出现重复基团时它变为非手性,箭头消失。一个按钮交换两个基团并翻转手性。

它的位置

范托夫出现的时刻,化学正在学习分子的建筑学:凯库勒已指出碳形成四条键、并连成链与环,而四面体如今把这些链条托举进了空间。键到底是什么,是后来才有的答案——路易斯的共享电子对(lewis-1916);它为什么指向那些方向,则更晚,随量子力学经鲍林之手而来(pauling-1931)。这条线一路通向 DNA 那条有手性的双螺旋(watson-crick-1953)与蛋白质折叠出的形状:分子在空间中如何排布才是要害——这个念头,正是从这里开始的。

The original document
Original source text
J. H. van 't Hoff · pamphlet, Utrecht, 5 September 1874 · also Archives néerlandaises des sciences exactes et naturelles 9 (1874) 445–454
Carbon, lifted off the page
Van 't Hoff opens from a frustration: the flat structural formulae chemists drew on paper could not account for certain pairs of substances that share every atom and every connection yet are plainly different — above all, compounds that rotate the plane of polarised light. His proposal is to take the formula off the page. The four valencies (he calls them affinities) of a carbon atom are not arranged flat; they point toward the four corners of a regular tetrahedron, with the carbon atom at its centre.
[Annotation] From this one geometric move a definition follows. When the four groups attached to a carbon are all different, the tetrahedron and its mirror image cannot be brought into coincidence — van 't Hoff calls such a centre an asymmetric carbon atom. There are then exactly two arrangements, related as left hand to right hand.
…in cases where the four affinities of the carbon atom are saturated with four mutually different univalent groups, two and not more than two different tetrahedra can be formed, which are each other's mirror images.
[Annotation] The note's second half links the geometry to a measurement. Van 't Hoff observes that the substances known to be optically active in solution are just those whose formulae contain an asymmetric carbon, and that chemical changes which destroy the asymmetry destroy the optical activity with it. He runs through known cases — lactic acid (the puzzle Wislicenus had sharpened) and the tartaric acids whose mirror-image crystals Pasteur had separated by hand in 1848.
[Annotation] The same tetrahedral picture is extended to the carbon–carbon double bond, treated as two tetrahedra joined along an edge: rotation is locked, so a doubly-bonded pair of carbons with different groups also comes in two fixed forms — the geometric (cis / trans) isomers, such as maleic and fumaric acid.
[ … ]
[Annotation] A few weeks after this pamphlet, the French chemist J. A. Le Bel reached the same conclusion by an independent route. Van 't Hoff expanded the work the next year as La chimie dans l'espace (1875); the English text quoted here is from Richardson's 1901 collection of the founding memoirs.
J. H. van 't Hoff · Utrecht · September 1874