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气候科学 1861

论气体与蒸气对热的吸收与辐射

约翰·丁达尔

他在实验室里测出:水汽和二氧化碳困得住热,而空气的主成分却不能。

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In depth · the introduction

约 1859 年,在伦敦的一间地下室里,约翰·丁达尔让一束热穿过黄铜管,发现替我们这颗行星保暖的气体,根本不是空气的主成分——而是一缕水汽和一丝二氧化碳。

核心想法

空气主要是氮和氧。丁达尔让辐射热——热物体放出的看不见的暖意——一种一种地穿过装着不同气体的管子,量出每种气体吸住了多少。纯氮、氧、氢与干燥空气,都让热径直穿过,仿佛管子是空的。

可二氧化碳把热喝了下去,水汽喝得更多。于是,困住地球暖意的,恰恰是那些稀少的气体——那一丝二氧化碳与空气里的潮气——而非大气的主体。这正是行星得以温暖的缘由:那寥寥几种气体,像一床毯子般替它的热保温。

它是如何诞生的

丁达尔不只是物理学家,也是登山者与冰川观察者,他着迷于冰期究竟从何而来。要追究这个,他得先弄清:大气本身能否留住热——这一点当时多数科学家都怀疑,他们假定气体对热不过是透明的。

他造了一套极其灵敏的装置:一束热、一根长管,再加一只接着电流计的热电堆,指针在最微弱的变化下也会摆动。最难的是洁净——黏在玻璃器皿上的零星水汽会自顾自地吸热,险些骗过了他。等到把一切彻底干燥,结论已无可置疑:简单气体透明,复合气体不然,而潮湿的空气比干燥的更善于困热。他于 1859 年在皇家研究院宣布此事,并在 1861 年的贝克尔讲座中和盘托出。

它为何重要

丁达尔把温室效应从一种直觉,变成了一项测得的事实。几十年前,约瑟夫·傅里叶猜想空气让地球比空荡的太空更暖;丁达尔则一种气体接一种气体地表明:是哪些气体在起作用、作用有多强。他甚至写道——既然困热的是水汽与二氧化碳,那么它们的量一旦改变,气候就必随之改变——这正是我们今天对暖化世界的全部理解的那粒种子。

一个可以想象的画面

想象一扇特制玻璃窗:它让光进来,却不让暖意出去。阳光倾泻进来、晒热房间;温热的房间散发看不见的热,而玻璃把这热留住。氮和氧像一扇普通的开着的窗——热径直穿过。二氧化碳与水汽,才是那块特制的玻璃。空气里这种玻璃并不多,但正是它,决定了房间——也就是整个行星——最终有多暖。

可交互的辐射热管:选择一种气体(干燥空气、碳酸、沼气、水汽或乙烯),滑动它充满黄铜管的程度;一束辐射热穿过管子射向热电堆,电流计指针随被吸收的热而偏转。干燥空气几乎不吸收;复合气体则强烈吸收。

它的位置

丁达尔站在约瑟夫·傅里叶的肩上——后者在 1820 年代头一个追问:地球为何比它「应有的」更暖。比丁达尔早三年,美国的尤妮斯·富特已表明:阳光下,富含二氧化碳的空气升温最多,她甚至提出这种气体越多、世界便越暖——这一优先权如今已获承认。丁达尔补上了精确的实验室测量;斯万特·阿伦尼乌斯随后在 1896 年把它化为一个数字;查尔斯·基林则在 1958 年开始测量二氧化碳的真实攀升。这根黄铜管,正是那条链子的起点。

The original document
Original source text
John Tyndall · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society 151 (1861): 1–36 · the Bakerian Lecture, developed from his Royal Institution discourse of 10 June 1859
The lecture opens from a settled assumption Tyndall set out to test: that the great gases of the atmosphere are simply transparent to radiant heat, mere bystanders to the warmth that passes through them. If that were true, the air could play no part in regulating the Earth's temperature. He resolved to measure, gas by gas, how much heat each one actually absorbs.
The instrument
He passed a beam of radiant heat from a heated source down the length of a polished brass tube and onto a sensitive thermopile, whose tiny voltage swung the needle of a galvanometer. By comparing the beam through an emptied tube with the beam through a tube filled with a chosen gas, the deflection of the needle measured exactly how much heat that gas had absorbed — a difference his apparatus could register to a small fraction of a degree.
The elementary gases are transparent
Oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen and dry, carefully purified air, admitted into the tube, scarcely moved the needle at all: to radiant heat they behave almost as if the tube were empty. The simple, two-atom gases that make up the bulk of the air are, in Tyndall's term, sensibly transparent.
The compound gases absorb
The compound gases told the opposite story. Carbonic acid (carbon dioxide), olefiant gas (ethylene), the vapours of many liquids, and above all aqueous vapour absorbed the heat strongly — olefiant gas the most powerfully of those he tried. Crucially, the water vapour always present in ordinary air made it a far stronger absorber of heat than the dry, purified gas; the small amount of vapour in the laboratory air already intercepted many times more heat than the air itself.
A change of climate
From this Tyndall drew the consequence that the atmosphere's power to retain the Earth's heat rests not on its abundant gases but on its trace constituents — water vapour first of all, and the carbonic acid diffused through it:
if, as the above experiments indicate, the chief influence be exercised by aqueous vapour, every variation of this constituent must produce a change of climate.
A change in the amount of these heat-absorbing gases, he reasoned, would change the temperature at the surface — the first experimental grounding for the idea that the air's minor gases hold the planet's thermostat.
[ … ]
Royal Institution, London · 1859–1861