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物理学 1897

阴极射线

J. J. 汤姆孙

一束发光的射线在场中弯曲——原来它是一种比任何原子都轻得多的粒子。

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In depth · the introduction

空荡荡的玻璃管里,一束淡淡的辉光在磁铁的牵引下向旁边弯去——汤姆孙意识到,他正看着一块比原子还小的物质。

核心想法

十九世纪末,物理学家能让一束奇怪的绿色辉光,从抽空玻璃管的负电极那一端流过。他们称之为阴极射线,并为「它究竟是什么」争论了几十年:是充满空间、那个看不见的「以太」中的一阵波澜,还是一雹微小的带电粒子?

汤姆孙用一次测量了结了争论。他让射线穿过电场与磁场,看它弯了多远,再反推出每个粒子的电荷与质量之间的比值。答案令人震惊:这些粒子约比最轻的原子——氢——还轻一千倍。原子长久以来被视为物质最小、不可再分的碎片,可它里面竟还藏着更小的东西。今天,我们把那东西叫作电子。

它是如何诞生的

阴极射线管是一八九〇年代一个热门的谜。以德国人为首的一派,受那些让射线看起来像波的实验所引,坚信它是以太中的一种扰动。英国人则偏向粒子说。一条尖锐的证据却不利于英国人:海因里希·赫兹曾试图用电场去偏转射线,却什么都没看到——带电的粒子,难道不该拐弯吗?

执掌剑桥卡文迪许实验室的汤姆孙,找到了那个破绽。赫兹的管子里气体还太多,把电荷带走,抵消了电场。汤姆孙发现,只要把管子抽到更好的真空,射线便干脆地朝正极板弯去——恰如一束负电粒子所必须表现的那样。接着他测量它在电场与磁场中各弯了多少,那极小的质量便从数字里直接掘了出来。

它为何重要

两千多年里,「原子」一词意味着「不可切割」——物质最后、最小的那一块。汤姆孙却找到了更小的一块,而且无论用哪种气体、哪种金属,都是同一种。这意味着:每一种元素的每一个原子,都共享一种共同的成分——电子。这是坚实的原子上裂的第一道缝,它通向了原子核、通向了量子物理,也通向了所有现代电子技术。不过汤姆孙很谨慎:他测的是一个比值,而非粒子的质量本身——那个确切的数字,还要再过两年、由别人之手才能锁定。

一个可以想象的画面

想象你把一个球滚过一台强力风扇、同时又滚下一道斜坡。它偏了多远,能告诉你关于这个球的一些事——沉重的保龄球几乎纹丝不动,轻盈的乒乓球则乱飞。汤姆孙看不见他的粒子,却能看到束流在电场与磁场中「偏」了多远。那巨大的偏转告诉他:这些粒子轻如羽毛——轻得根本不可能是整个的原子。

一个可交互的阴极射线管:一束发光的负电束流从炽热的阴极射出,从两块带电极板之间穿过,落在一块屏上。拖动滑块增强偏转电场,束流便朝正极板弯去,亮点随之移动;勾选一个选项,加上一个能抵消弯曲、把束流拉直的磁场。

它的位置

汤姆孙的电子,坐在经典物理与现代物理的转轴上。在它身后,是把电与磁绑在一起的法拉第与麦克斯韦;在它身前,是一连串的级联反应——他自己的学生卢瑟福找到原子核、玻尔把原子量子化,以及整场量子革命。本馆中关于电磁、以及关于量子世界的线索,都在这里交汇——在一只玻璃管里,原子的第一个部件终于被称了重。

The original document
Original source text

问题——两种相互竞争的看法

J. J. Thomson · Cathode Rays · Phil. Mag. 5th ser. 44 (1897): 293–316 · Cavendish Laboratory
The experiments discussed in this paper were undertaken in the hope of gaining some information as to the nature of the Cathode Rays. The most diverse opinions are held as to these rays; according to the almost unanimous opinion of German physicists they are due to some process in the aether to which—inasmuch as in a uniform magnetic field their course is circular and not rectilinear—no phenomenon hitherto observed is analogous: another view of these rays is that, so far from being wholly aetherial, they are in fact wholly material, and that they mark the paths of particles of matter charged with negative electricity.

赫兹错过的电偏转

It was only when the vacuum was a good one that the deflexion took place, but that the absence of deflexion is due to the conductivity of the medium is shown by what takes place when the vacuum has just arrived at the stage at which the deflexion begins.
[ … ]
If we measure the deflexion experienced by the rays when traversing a given length under a uniform electric intensity, and the deflexion of the rays when they traverse a given distance under a uniform magnetic field, we can find the values of m/e and v.

带负电的物质粒子

As the cathode rays carry a charge of negative electricity, are deflected by an electrostatic force as if they were negatively electrified, and are acted on by a magnetic force in just the way in which this force would act on a negatively electrified body moving along the path of these rays, I can see no escape from the conclusion that they are charges of negative electricity carried by particles of matter.

一种新状态的物质

Thus on this view we have in the cathode rays matter in a new state, a state in which the subdivision of matter is carried very much further than in the ordinary gaseous state: a state in which all matter—that is, matter derived from different sources such as hydrogen, oxygen, &c.—is of one and the same kind; this matter being the substance from which all the chemical elements are built up.
Cavendish Laboratory · Cambridge · 1897