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物理学 1895

论一种新的射线

威廉·康拉德·伦琴

一种穿透血肉、却穿不透骨头的不可见射线——让我们看进活生生的身体内部。

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In depth · the introduction

一个冬夜,一位物理学家看见漆黑房间另一头的屏幕发起光来——几周之后,全世界都能给自己的骨头拍照了。

核心想法

伦琴发现了一种不可见的射线,它能径直穿过柔软的东西——纸、木头、血肉——却被金属、骨头这类致密之物挡住。由于骨头比血肉挡住更多的射线,只要你把手放在射线与屏幕之间,骨头投下的阴影,就比四周的皮肉更暗。人类第一次,不必切开身体,就能看进一具活生生的身体内部。

他并不知道这射线究竟是什么,于是给它起了一个科学家面对未知时最诚实的名字:X——那个代表未知量的符号。这个名字就此沿用了下来。

它是如何诞生的

1895 年 11 月,威廉·伦琴在他维尔茨堡的实验室里,用放电管做实验——那是一种抽掉了大部分空气的玻璃管,高压通过时会发光。他小心地用黑色硬纸板把一支管子裹了起来,挡住它所有的光。在黑暗的房间里,他注意到一米外有一丝微弱的闪光:一小块涂着荧光化学物的屏幕,正自顾自地亮着。有某种不可见之物,正穿过硬纸板抵达那里。

在七个近乎着魔的星期里——据说他吃住都在实验室——他拿这种新射线去试遍了所能找到的一切。相传,他请妻子安娜·贝尔塔把手放在一张照相底片上。当她看见自己骨架的影像、结婚戒指漂浮在骨头四周时,据说她惊呼:「我看见了我的死亡。」年底,他发表了一份简短而谨慎的报告,消息便绕着地球飞奔开来。

它为何重要

几乎在一夜之间,医学得以看进病人体内。数月之内,医生便开始用 X 射线寻找骨折与弹片——这样的普及速度,几乎闻所未闻。这一发现,也给物理学递上了一道新谜题——穿透性射线,它径直通向了放射性,并最终通向核物理。1901 年,伦琴获得了有史以来第一个诺贝尔物理学奖。他拒绝为这项发现申请专利,好让全世界都能自由地使用它。

一个可以想象的画面

想象你用手电筒照向一块磨砂玻璃屏,手挡在中间。一条薄围巾几乎不会让光变暗;一本厚书却会把光完全遮没。X 射线做的是同一件事,只是它针对的,是你的眼睛分辨不出的材料:血肉是那条薄围巾,骨头是那本厚书。于是在你手后的屏幕上,你会看见一团苍白模糊的皮肉,里面套着一副暗色而锐利的骨架——这道阴影,不是光画出来的,而是密度画出来的。

一台可交互的 X 射线工作台:左侧是 X 射线管,中间是一只手,右侧是荧光屏。拖动滑块改变管电压,看骨骼那道暗影在血肉那道更淡的阴影中浮现;再拖另一个滑块移动屏幕,看辉光如何随距离变暗。

它的位置

伦琴的射线,开启了关于不可见辐射的十年发现:1896 年,亨利·贝克勒尔发现铀能自顾自地让照相底片感光,而玛丽与皮埃尔·居里把这道辉光追溯到了放射性。至于 X 射线本身,要到马克斯·冯·劳厄与布拉格父子(1912–1913)证明它是短波长的光——和麦克斯韦一代人之前所统一的,同属一个电磁大家族——人们才真正理解了它。而正是一张 X 光照片——罗莎琳·富兰克林的「51 号照片」——在几十年后帮助揭示了 DNA 的形状。今天每一次 CT 扫描、每一台机场扫描仪,都是维尔茨堡那块发光屏幕的曾孙。

The original document
Original source text

发光的屏幕

W. C. Röntgen · On a New Kind of Rays · 1895 · trans. A. Stanton, Nature 53 (1896)
A discharge from a large induction coil is passed through a Hittorf's vacuum tube, or through a well-exhausted Crookes' or Lenard's tube. The tube is surrounded by a fairly close-fitting shield of black paper; it is then possible to see, in a completely darkened room, that paper covered on one side with barium platinocyanide lights up with brilliant fluorescence when brought into the neighbourhood of the tube, whether the painted side or the other be turned towards the tube.
The fluorescence is still visible at two metres distance. It is easy to show that the origin of the fluorescence lies within the vacuum tube.

物质如何让射线穿过

It is readily shown that all bodies possess this same transparency, but in very varying degrees. For example, paper is very transparent; the fluorescent screen will light up when placed behind a book of a thousand pages; printer's ink offers no marked resistance.
[ … ]
A piece of sheet aluminium, 15 mm. thick, still allowed the X-rays (as I will call the rays, for the sake of brevity) to pass, but greatly reduced the fluorescence. Glass plates of similar thickness behave similarly; lead glass is, however, much more opaque than glass free from lead. Ebonite several centimetres thick is transparent. If the hand be held before the fluorescent screen, the shadow shows the bones clearly with only faint outlines of the surrounding tissues.

为射线命名

… the X-rays (as I will call the rays, for the sake of brevity) …
Of special interest in this connection is the fact that photographic dry plates are sensitive to the X-rays. It is thus possible to exhibit the phenomena so as to exclude the danger of error.

射线究竟是什么

A kind of relationship between the new rays and light rays appears to exist; at least the formation of shadows, fluorescence, and the production of chemical action point in this direction. … Should not the new rays be ascribed to longitudinal waves in the ether? I must confess that I have in the course of this research made myself more and more familiar with this thought, and venture to put the opinion forward, while I am quite conscious that the hypothesis advanced still requires a more solid foundation.
Würzburg Physical and Medical Society · 1895