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经济学 1817

政治经济学及赋税原理

大卫·李嘉图

即便一国样样都造得更省,两国仍能因贸易而双双获益——各自专攻自己「放弃得最少」的那样。

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In depth · the introduction

葡萄牙造布、酿酒所需的工人,都比英国少——那究竟图什么,要让葡萄牙去买英国的布?李嘉图那个出人意料的答案,开启了现代支持贸易的整套论证。

核心想法

我们都明白:你擅长一件事、我擅长另一件,那就各做各擅长的,再交换。李嘉图发现的,要奇特、也要有力得多:即便一个国家样样都造得更好,两国仍能靠专业化与贸易双双获益。

诀窍在于:别再问「谁用的劳动更少?」,而要问「每个国家为造这样东西,放弃了什么?」葡萄牙酿酒酿得出神入化——出神入化到,它每酿一桶酒,只放弃了很少一点布。英国两样都笨手笨脚,但在布上没那么笨。于是葡萄牙该把力气倾注在酒上,英国倾注在布上,再彼此交换。最后两国手里的酒和布,都比各自闭门自产时更多。

它是如何诞生的

大卫·李嘉图是个白手起家的证券经纪人,在伦敦交易所赚下一大笔财富——其中一部分来自滑铁卢战役前后的政府公债——退休时已富到能为自己买进议会的席位。经济学是他的挚爱;据说,这份热情源于一次度假时随手拿起的亚当·斯密《国富论》。斯密力倡自由贸易,但他的论据建立在绝对优势之上,留着一个漏洞:那么,一个样样都更在行的国家,又当如何?

在 1817 年的《政治经济学及赋税原理》里,李嘉图用一章短短的「论对外贸易」,靠四个关于英国、葡萄牙、布与酒的小数字,把这个漏洞补上了。例子干净利落,以至于一讲就是两百年。它问世时,正值英国为《谷物法》争得不可开交——那些关税把外国谷物挡在门外,护着地主的利益——而此时已是议员的李嘉图,便用他的经济学,为更便宜的食物与更自由的贸易而辩。

它为何重要

比较优势是经济学里难得一见、既真正出人意料、又几乎被普遍接受的想法。正因为它,经济学家才压倒性地支持开放贸易;世界贸易组织一类的机构,也以它为根基。它解释了:为什么没有哪个国家非得在某样上「数一数二」,才能在世界经济中占有一席之地——它只需在某样上「相对地」比自己做别的事更在行,而每个国家永远都是如此。

李嘉图对自己的假设很诚实,我们也该如此:他的论证悄悄依赖于资金留在本国、而非追逐海外更廉价的劳动;而且,他说的是国家「总体上」获益——并非那些手艺被抢了生意的具体工人。这些保留,恰恰是今天关于全球化的种种争吵所在之处。

一个可以想象的画面

想象镇上最好的外科医生,同时也是镇上打字最快的人。她该自己打字吗?不该——她花在打字上的每一个钟头,都是没能用在手术上的钟头,而在手术台前,她的价值要高得多。她在两件事上都强过助手,可让她去做手术、把打字留给助手,才更划算。那位助手在任何一样上都没有绝对优势——却照样有用武之地,因为要紧的不是谁更强,而是各自放弃了什么。国家,就是这位医生和这位秘书。

一个英国与葡萄牙交换布与酒的可交互模型:一个滑块把每个国家从「两样都自己造」推向「只专攻一样」——英国织布、葡萄牙酿酒——世界的布与酒总产出便双双越过「不贸易」时的基准线,用的还是同样多的工人。

它的位置

李嘉图直接站在亚当·斯密(本馆亦有收录)的肩上:斯密揭示了专业化如何让一家制针厂——乃至一个国家——的产出大增;李嘉图则把专业化推向国境之外,证明它即便在实力悬殊的伙伴之间也照样划算。在他之后,约翰·斯图亚特·密尔厘清了收益如何分配,而二十世纪的贸易理论家,又把优势系于各国所拥有的禀赋。这条线索,从斯密那只看不见的手,穿过李嘉图的两个国家,一直延伸到那些组装出你此刻所读设备的全球供应链。

The original document
Original source text

序言——根本的难题

David Ricardo · On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation · 1817 · Preface
The produce of the earth — all that is derived from its surface by the united application of labour, machinery, and capital, is divided among three classes of the community; namely, the proprietor of the land, the owner of the stock or capital necessary for its cultivation, and the labourers by whose industry it is cultivated.
To determine the laws which regulate this distribution, is the principal problem in Political Economy.

论对外贸易——那四个数字

Chapter VII · On Foreign Trade
England may be so circumstanced, that to produce the cloth may require the labour of 100 men for one year; and if she attempted to make the wine, it might require the labour of 120 men for the same time. England would therefore find it her interest to import wine, and to purchase it by the exportation of cloth.
To produce the wine in Portugal, might require only the labour of 80 men for one year, and to produce the cloth in the same country, might require the labour of 90 men for the same time. It would therefore be advantageous for her to export wine in exchange for cloth. This exchange might even take place, notwithstanding that the commodity imported by Portugal could be produced there with less labour than in England.
Though she could make the cloth with the labour of 90 men, she would import it from a country where it required the labour of 100 men to produce it, because it would be advantageous to her rather to employ her capital in the production of wine, for which she would obtain more cloth from England, than she could produce by diverting a portion of her capital from the cultivation of vines to the manufacture of cloth.

万国共成的社会

Chapter VII · On Foreign Trade
Under a system of perfectly free commerce, each country naturally devotes its capital and labour to such employments as are most beneficial to each. This pursuit of individual advantage is admirably connected with the universal good of the whole.
By stimulating industry, by rewarding ingenuity, and by using most efficaciously the peculiar powers bestowed by nature, it distributes labour most effectively and most economically: while, by increasing the general mass of productions, it diffuses general benefit, and binds together, by one common tie of interest and intercourse, the universal society of nations throughout the civilized world.