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物理学 1913

论基本电荷与阿伏伽德罗常数

罗伯特·密立根

他把带电油滴悬在半空,证明电荷只能是一个微小单元 e 的整数倍。

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In depth · the introduction

怎么去称量「一份电」——一份小到永远看不见的电?密立根把它捉在了一粒悬浮于空气中的油滴上。

核心想法

电荷不是你想要多少就有多少的。它以一颗颗一模一样的「颗粒」出现——而每一颗,都是一个电子的电荷。密立根测出了一颗颗粒的大小。

他的妙招,是让一滴小小的油滴悬停在两块金属极板之间。重力把油滴往下拉;在极板之间通上电压,又把带电的油滴往上推。把电压调到恰到好处,油滴便纹丝不动地悬着——而从「你需要多用力才能托住它」,就能算出它究竟带了多少电荷。一滴接一滴地做下去,得到的电荷总是同一个小数字的 1 倍、2 倍、3 倍……那个数字,就是 e,一个电子的电荷。

它是如何诞生的

这项工作于 1909 至 1913 年间,在芝加哥大学完成。先前的实验者曾试着观察一团团带电的水滴,可水还没等人测完就蒸发了。密立根——与他的研究生哈维·弗莱彻紧密合作,而弗莱彻在这一突破中的功劳,长期未获充分承认——改用普通香水喷雾器里的油,油不会干掉。

接下来便是耐心:透过望远镜,连续几个钟头盯住一粒发亮的微尘,轻轻拨动电压,把油滴每一次俘获过路离子时的细小跳变都记下来。电荷总是以相等的台阶变化。密立根 1913 年公布了他的 e 值,并于 1923 年获诺贝尔奖。几十年后,研究他笔记的史学家,也会就「他挑了哪些油滴发表」提出一个尖锐的问题。

它为何重要

这是「电由可数的单元构成」的直接证明,也是「一个单元到底有多大」的第一次真正精确的测量。与汤姆孙早先发现的电子相结合,它定下了电子的质量。而通过数电荷,密立根也能数原子——他的 e 值给出了阿伏伽德罗常数,也就是日常一块物质中那惊人数目的原子数。

一个可以想象的画面

想象你只能称量一袋袋密封的、一模一样的硬币,永远不能单独称一枚。一袋重 3 克,一袋 5 克,一袋 8 克,一袋 11 克。你从不会见到一袋重 3.5 或 4.2 克。唯一说得通的解释是:每一枚硬币恰好重 1 克,而每袋只是装了 3、5、8、11 枚。密立根的油滴就是那一袋袋硬币;那些以相等台阶变化的电荷告诉他:每一枚「硬币」——每一个电子——都带着同一个 e。

一滴带电油滴在两块极板之间,有一个向下的重力箭头和一个向上的电力箭头。增减电子、滑动极板电压,直到两个力平衡、油滴静止悬浮。

它的位置

1897 年,J. J. 汤姆孙(thomson-1897)发现了电子,并测出它的荷质比,却没能单独测出电荷本身。密立根补上了这个缺失的数字。两者合在一起,便把一个电荷与质量都已知的粒子,交到了下一代人手里——卢瑟福(rutherford-1911)与玻尔(bohr-1913)正是用它来搭建原子。他的油滴所揭示的「电荷的颗粒性」,如今已织入整个物理学,而他的 e,正是现代单位制赖以建立的常数之一。

The original document
Original source text
R. A. Millikan · Physical Review, Series II, 2 (1913): 109–143 · Ryerson Physical Laboratory, University of Chicago
§ The question
[Annotation] Is electric charge built from indivisible grains — exact multiples of one elementary unit — or can a body carry any amount at all? J. J. Thomson had measured the electron's charge-to-mass ratio in 1897, but the charge itself was known only roughly, and Felix Ehrenhaft was claiming to see fractional "sub-electrons." Millikan set out to measure the charge directly, on the smallest objects he could isolate.
§ The oil-drop method
[Annotation] A fine mist of oil is blown from an atomizer into a chamber above a pair of horizontal brass plates. Friction in the nozzle (and X-rays passing through the air) leaves each tiny drop with a few excess or missing electrons. A single drop is watched through a short telescope: with the field off it falls under gravity at a steady terminal speed; with the field switched on it can be driven back up, or held perfectly still. From the fall speed Millikan gets the drop's radius; from the balance of forces he gets its charge.
§ The correction of Stokes's law
[Annotation] His drops are only about a micron across — comparable to the average distance an air molecule travels between collisions — so the smooth-fluid drag law of Stokes slightly overestimates the resistance. Millikan's earlier (1911) paper, "The Isolation of an Ion, a Precision Measurement of its Charge, and the Correction of Stokes's Law," introduced the slip correction that made the result precise. This refinement, more than the apparatus, is what carried the measurement to a fraction of a percent.
§ The result
[Annotation] Whenever a drop suddenly caught or lost an ion, its charge changed by a jump — and every jump, and every total, was an exact whole-number multiple of one unit. Millikan's figure for that unit was e ≈ 4.774 × 10⁻¹⁰ electrostatic units, i.e. about 1.59 × 10⁻¹⁹ coulombs — within roughly a percent of today's value. Dividing the Faraday constant of electrolysis by e then gives the number of atoms in a mole, the Avogadro constant.
[ … ]
Ryerson Physical Laboratory, University of Chicago · 1913