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生物化学 1913

转化酶作用的动力学

莱昂诺·米夏埃利斯 与 莫德·门顿

酶先与底物结合再起作用,于是反应速率随底物上升、再趋平于一个上限——酶动力学的第一个方程。

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In depth · the introduction

为什么不管你喂给酶多少底物,它最终都会撞上一个再也突破不了的最高速度?

核心想法

酶是一种催化剂:它抓住某种特定的分子(它的底物),把它改造,放出产物,然后又能去抓下一个。米夏埃利斯与门顿的洞见是:这「抓」是关键。酶分子的数目是有限的,每一个做完一次活儿都要花点时间,所以当底物稀少时,速率会随底物上升——可一旦每个酶都忙了起来,再加底物也无济于事,速率便在一个上限处趋平。

这就给出一条干净的曲线,而两个数就能把它完全描述。Vmax 是最高速度,在酶被装满时达到。Km——米氏常数——是跑到那个最高速度一半时所需的底物量,它同时还是「酶抓得有多紧」的量度:Km 越小,抓得越牢,用更少的底物就能跑到半速。

它是如何诞生的

这项工作 1913 年在柏林完成,作者是莱昂诺·米夏埃利斯与莫德·门顿。门顿刚刚拿到加拿大授予女性的最早的医学博士学位之一;在那里她被挡在研究门外,于是远赴米夏埃利斯的实验室做科学。他们选了转化酶——把普通食糖分解的那种酶——因为这反应有个方便的「破绽」:它会翻转溶液扭转偏振光的方向,于是他们能实时地盯着速率。

早在十年前,维克托·亨利就已写下基本相同的方程,可他的测量无法证实它——他没有控制酸度,而新生成的糖又在缓慢地改变自己的旋光。米夏埃利斯与门顿用细致的技术把这两个问题都解决了,曲线终于与理论吻合。这条方程从此冠上了他们的名字——尽管它老实说欠着亨利一份人情。

它为何重要

它让生物化学变得可定量。在此之前,酶是个神秘的、会「让事情加快」的角色;在此之后,任何一种酶都能用两个可测的数来概括,并与别的酶相比较。这两个数让科学家得以绘制代谢的版图,弄明白为什么有些酶又快、有些酶又挑,而且——这对医学至关重要——预测身体如何分解一种药物,以及一个被设计来阻断某种酶的分子会怎样起作用。一个世纪过去,每一门药理学与生物化学的课程,仍从这里讲起。

一个可以想象的画面

想象一家超市,收银台的数目是固定的。来的顾客不多时,超市能以顾客到来的速度把他们结完账——速率随人流而走。可一旦赶上节日高峰,每个收银台都被占住了;这时超市有一个最大吞吐量,再多的顾客也只是让队伍变长,并不能让任何事更快。那个最大值就是 Vmax。让超市以最高速度一半运转的人流量,就是 Km——而一个更快、更利落的收银员(一种把底物抓得很紧的酶),用小得多的人流就能到达那个半速点。

可交互的酶动力学图:两个滑杆设定底物浓度 [S] 与米氏常数 Km。组件画出先升后平的米氏曲线,附 Vmax 处的虚线天花板、半 Vmax 线,以及 [S] 等于 Km 处的琥珀色标记。一个绿点跟随当前 [S],提示说明反应正随底物上升、处于半速,还是已饱和。

它的位置

到 1913 年,化学家已知道「酵素」能让反应加快——巴斯德把发酵系于活细胞(pasteur-1861)——可没人能给催化安上一个数。米夏埃利斯与门顿在维克托·亨利 1903 年方程的基础上,补上了那个缺失的测量。从这里,线索通向布里格斯与霍尔丹的稳态推广,通向「有些酶可以靠在别处的结合被开关」这一发现(这种别构调控,连同操纵子的逻辑,组织起整个细胞——见 monod-jacob-1961),并伸进代谢那张密集的酶网络,例如柠檬酸循环(krebs-1937)。它是这一切之下的定量根基。

The original document
Original source text
L. Michaelis & M. L. Menten · Biochemische Zeitschrift 49 (1913) 333–369 · "Die Kinetik der Invertinwirkung"
The problem: how fast does an enzyme work?
[Annotation] The paper studies invertase, the enzyme that splits cane sugar (sucrose) into glucose and fructose. The reaction has a built-in meter: sucrose rotates polarised light to the right, the product mixture rotates it to the left, so the optical rotation "inverts" as the reaction runs — letting the two authors follow the rate continuously. They build on Victor Henri (1903), who had already argued that an enzyme first forms a compound with its substrate, but whose experiments were undermined by uncontrolled acidity and by the slow mutarotation of the freshly released sugars.
The model: bind first, then react
[Annotation] Enzyme E reversibly binds substrate S into a complex ES, which then breaks down to give product P and frees the enzyme to go again. Assuming the binding step reaches equilibrium quickly, the amount of ES — and therefore the rate — is set by the substrate concentration through a single dissociation constant. Conservation of total enzyme (free plus bound) closes the algebra.
The result: a saturating hyperbola
v = Vmax · [S] / (Km + [S])
[Annotation] At low substrate the rate is nearly proportional to [S]; at high substrate it climbs toward a ceiling Vmax (every enzyme is busy); and when [S] equals Km the rate is exactly half of Vmax. That half-saturation point defines the Michaelis constant Km, which under the rapid-equilibrium reading is the dissociation constant of the ES complex — a first quantitative picture of how tightly an enzyme grips its substrate.
[Annotation] What made it work where Henri had failed was experimental care: the authors held the acidity fixed with buffers (Michaelis was a pioneer of pH method), corrected for the mutarotation of the product sugars, and measured the initial velocity of each run — before product could accumulate and drive the reverse reaction.
[ … ]
[Annotation] Twelve years later Briggs and Haldane (1925) rederived the same hyperbola from a steady-state assumption rather than equilibrium, generalising Km to (k₋₁ + kcat)/k₁; Lineweaver and Burk (1934) added the double-reciprocal plot for reading Vmax and Km off a straight line. The English passages at the source are Johnson and Goody's 2011 translation, whose reanalysis found the 1913 data even more precise than the authors claimed.
L. Michaelis & M. L. Menten · Berlin · 1913