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地球科学 1967

《北太平洋:球面构造的一个实例》

丹·麦肯齐 与 罗伯特·帕克

地球的外壳是少数几块刚性板块——每一对都绕着同一个极,作一次转动。

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In depth · the introduction

大陆确实在移动——但不是以「大陆」的身份。地球的整个表面裂成了少数几块巨大的刚性板块,麦肯齐与帕克发现,每一对板块都绕着同一个点转动,就像门绕着合页。

把这个想法拆开看

看一张全球地震分布图,一个图案会跳出来:地震都落在一条条细线上,线与线之间,留着一大片一大片的安静区域。麦肯齐与帕克认真对待了这些安静区域。他们说,那些就是刚性板块——地球外壳的板片,既不弯折也不伸缩——而一切动静,只发生在板块相遇之处。

接着是优雅的那一步。在球面上,把一块刚性板块挪来挪去,等同于让它绕一根过地心的轴旋转。那根轴从地表穿出的地方,就是这一对板块的「转动极」。在极的附近,两板块几乎不相对错动;转过四分之一个地球,它们错动得最快。两个数——极在哪里、转得多快——就描述了全部。

从地震里读出这场转动

到 1960 年代中期,所有零件都已摆上桌面,却还没拼起来:魏格纳漂移的大陆、赫斯扩张的洋底、瓦因与马修斯的磁条带,还有图佐·威尔逊新提出的「转换断层」。所缺的,是把这一切变精确的办法。年轻的剑桥地球物理学家丹·麦肯齐,与编写绘图程序的罗伯特·帕克,从欧拉的一条老定理与一种巧妙的投影选择中找到了它。

他们的检验很漂亮。倘若两板块真的绕一个极转动,那么在一张以该极为中心的特殊地图上,每次地震的滑动方向,都应排成整齐的平行行列。他们把北太平洋一圈地震——阿留申、圣安德烈斯——的滑动方向都画了上去,行列果然对齐了。论文于 1967 年 12 月刊于《自然》。在美国,杰森·摩根早几个月已独立地得出同一想法;两人共享这套理论的奠基之功。

它为何重要

这正是一组大胆假说变成一门可以计算的科学的时刻。大陆漂移已被争论了五十年,且多遭否定;海底扩张解释了引擎,却没解释几何。麦肯齐与帕克补上了几何——精确、可检验,并在四分之一个地球上由地震加以证实。不到一年,这套方法便被推及整个地球,「板块构造」从此成为统辖整个地质学的框架:地震在哪里发生、山脉为何隆起、海洋如何开合,皆由它统摄。

同一根轴上的两张唱片

想象一张黑胶唱片在轴上转。靠近轴心的点几乎不动;边缘的点飞速绕行。那根轴就是转动极,而速度随着你离极越远而越大——恰好正比于离极角度的正弦。现在再想象两张这样的圆盘沿一道接缝相遇:它们如何沿这道缝碾磨、张开或错过彼此,只取决于那根共享的轴在哪里。那道缝,就是板块边界;那根轴,就是欧拉极。

一幅沿欧拉转轴俯视的圆形视图,转动极在圆心。沿一条从圆心出发的线,箭头都指向侧旁,离极越远就越长——圆心附近最短,边缘处最长。一个滑块设定转动速率;另一个滑块沿线移动一个点,显示那里两板块相对错动有多快。

之前与之后

在本馆中,这篇论文是板块构造故事的转枢。魏格纳(1912)看出大陆会动;赫斯(1962)找到了洋底那条移动的传送带;瓦因与马修斯(1963)在磁条带里读出了它的速度。麦肯齐与帕克(1967)与摩根一道,把这一切化作球面上刚性板块转动的一条精确之律——勒皮雄(1968)随后绘出了整颗行星的板块。此后的一切,直到你手机里那枚以每年厘米级量度漂移的 GPS,说的都是这门语言。

The original document
Original source text
Dan P. McKenzie & Robert L. Parker · Nature 216 (5122): 1276–1280 · 30 December 1967
The claim, stated at the top
The paper is a short letter, and its opening summary states the whole thesis — that the rigid pieces of Earth's surface move over the sphere as a single quarter-turn of geometry. The following sentence is that summary, verbatim.
Individual aseismic areas move as rigid plates on the surface of a sphere. Application of the Mercator projection to slip vectors shows that the paving stone theory of world tectonics is correct and applies to about a quarter of the Earth's surface.
The paving stone hypothesis
(Paraphrase.) The seismic belts of the world are narrow; the vast regions between them are almost free of earthquakes. McKenzie and Parker take this literally: those quiet regions are rigid, undeforming plates — the “paving stones” — and essentially all of Earth's present deformation is concentrated at the lines where the plates meet. The problem of global tectonics then reduces to describing how a few rigid caps slide past one another on a sphere.
Euler's theorem: poles of rotation
(Paraphrase.) By a theorem of Euler, any motion of a rigid cap over the surface of a sphere is a rotation about an axis through the sphere's centre — a single “pole of rotation.” The relative motion of two plates is therefore fixed by one pole and one angular velocity. Points on the boundary trace small circles about that pole; their relative speed is greatest a quarter-circle from the pole and falls to zero at the pole itself.
The Mercator test
(Paraphrase.) This gives a sharp, visual test. Re-draw the map on a Mercator projection whose equator is the plate pair's rotation pole: the small circles of relative motion become horizontal straight lines. The slip vectors of earthquakes along the boundary — the directions in which the ground actually moves, read from fault-plane solutions — must then all lie horizontal and parallel. McKenzie and Parker plot the slip vectors of North Pacific earthquakes (the Aleutian arc and neighbouring boundaries) together with the strike of the San Andreas fault, and find that a single Pacific–America pole brings them into line.
Result
(Paraphrase.) The fit holds. A single rigid-plate rotation accounts for the instantaneous motions around the entire North Pacific — about a quarter of the globe — confirming the paving-stone picture quantitatively for the first time. The same method, applied pole by pole, would shortly be extended to the whole Earth.
[ … ]
Nature · 30 December 1967