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地球科学 1830

《地质学原理》

查尔斯·莱尔

塑造地球的,是今天仍在运作的寻常之力——只要给它漫长得难以想象的时间。

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In depth · the introduction

一条慢到看不出在动的河,只要给它几百万年,就能切出一道一英里多深的峡谷。这份耐心,就是莱尔的全部想法。

核心想法

莱尔主张,地球的山脉、河谷与一层层岩石,并不是被遥远过去某一次突发的灾难造出来的。它们是被我们今天仍能亲眼看见的寻常之力造出来的——河流把岩石磨蚀,雨与冰把它撬裂,火山把它堆高,地震把土地轻轻抬起或落下——只是一点一点,在一段几乎无法想象的漫长时间里进行。

解开过去的钥匙,是时间。每一下推动都微不足道,可过去是如此之「深」,微小的推动累积起来,足以把大陆重新塑形。所以,要弄懂发生过什么,就去研究正在发生什么:看今天的河流与火山在做什么,再乘以几百万年。

那个读懂岩石的律师

查尔斯·莱尔在被地质学俘获之前,受的是出庭律师的训练——这一点看得出来:《地质学原理》读来像一份律师的辩护状,横跨三卷(1830–1833),一桩事实一桩事实地把案子建立起来。他走遍欧洲搜集证据:埃特纳火山的火山锥、被抬升的海滩,尤其是那不勒斯附近波佐利的古罗马石柱——柱身半腰一圈,布满海中生物钻出的孔洞,证明那里的地面曾沉入海面以下、又再度抬升,而这一切都发生在有史以来。他并不是第一个想到这一点的人——苏格兰人詹姆斯·赫顿(James Hutton)几十年前就提出过类似的看法——但让它变得无可辩驳的,是莱尔。

它为何重要

莱尔把地质学从「诺亚洪水」式的讲故事里拉了出来,让它成为一门你能拿可测量之物去检验的科学。他还把「深时」(deep time)交给了世界——让人意识到:地球的过去,不是几千年,而是漫长、漫长到令人眩晕得多。这份礼物,径直送到了一位名叫查尔斯·达尔文的年轻博物学家手中——他在「小猎犬号」的航程上读了第一卷。没有莱尔那如海洋般浩瀚的时间,演化就没有空间去缓缓施展;有了它,便有了用不完的时间。

水与石

一个滴水的龙头,看起来人畜无害——可让它对着同一处滴上一百年,就会在坚石上凿出一个盆来。现在,把一百年换成一亿年,把水滴换成一条河。力没有任何改变,变的只有时间。莱尔正是这样看待大峡谷与阿尔卑斯山的——不是暴烈,而是耐心。

一幅地质剖面图:水平的岩层排成一道道土色的条带,上为较年轻、下为较古老。地表的一条河向下切出一道 V 形峡谷,穿过层层岩石。两个滑块分别设定侵蚀速率(毫米/年)与经历的时间(从一百年到一千万年);随着速率乘以时间增大,峡谷越切越深,在两壁露出更古老的岩层。右侧有一道以米为单位的深度标尺;顶部附近一道细细的红色刻度,标出仅仅一个人一生的侵蚀能添上多么微薄的一点。

之前与之后

在莱尔之前,苏格兰人詹姆斯·赫顿早在 1780 年代就瞥见过「深时」——他有句名言,说自己在岩石中「看不到起点的痕迹,也望不见终点的迹象」——可他的文字晦涩、少有人读;真正赢得这场争论的,是莱尔那清晰、证据层层叠起的几卷书。在他之后,图景不断被填满:达尔文的演化倚仗他的时间尺度(darwin-1859);很久以后,放射性让地质学家为「深时」填上了真正的数字;而板块构造——由魏格纳(wegener-1912)所预示——则为莱尔能描述、却无法解释的造山,提供了那台引擎。

The original document
Original source text
Charles Lyell (1797–1875) · Principles of Geology, Vol. 1 (London: John Murray, 1830); Vols. 2–3 followed in 1832–1833
What geology is
Lyell opens by giving the young science a definition and a remit — it is the study of how the Earth and its life have changed, and of the causes of those changes.
Geology is the science which investigates the successive changes that have taken place in the organic and inorganic kingdoms of nature; it enquires into the causes of these changes, and the influence which they have exerted in modifying the surface and external structure of our planet.
By reference to causes now in operation
The full title states the method. The forces to invoke are not vanished catastrophes but the ones we can still watch — rivers, rain and frost, tides, volcanoes, earthquakes — supposed sufficient, given time, to have built and worn away whole landscapes.
Principles of Geology, being an attempt to explain the former changes of the earth's surface, by reference to causes now in operation.
The pillars of Pozzuoli
The frontispiece to Volume 1 is Lyell's emblem: the three marble columns of the Roman market (the “Temple of Serapis”) at Pozzuoli, near Naples. Each pillar is smooth for about its lower third, then carries a band perforated by marine boring bivalves (Lithodomus) higher up. The columns must therefore have stood in air, sunk below the sea where the molluscs bored them, and risen again — all since Roman times. The solid land itself moves slowly up and down. (This passage is a description of the figure, not a quotation.)
Deep time
For such gentle causes to account for mountains and canyons, the past must be immensely long. Throughout the work Lyell presses for a vastness of geological time far beyond the few thousand years then commonly assumed — the deep time on which the whole argument rests. (Annotation.)
[ … ]
London · John Murray · 1830 — Vols. 2–3, 1832–1833