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数学 1684

求极大值与极小值的新方法

戈特弗里德·威廉·莱布尼茨

寥寥几个符号——dx、dy——把「变化」本身变成了可以演算的代数。

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In depth · the introduction

在莱布尼茨之前,求一条曲线的陡度,是一道只能一条曲线一条曲线去攻的难题。他把它变成了一套几乎人人都能照着做的「配方」。

核心想法

微积分是「变化」的数学。它的一半,问的是一个听起来很简单的问题:一条曲线在某一个点上有多陡?对一段笔直的斜坡,答案很容易——上升量除以前进量。可真实的曲线是弯的,所以每一个点的陡度都不一样。

莱布尼茨的妙招是「放大」。任何一条光滑曲线,只要看足够小的一小段,它看上去就是直的。把那一小步横向记作 dx,把随之而来的那一点点上升记作 dy;那么这个点的陡度,就只是 dy 除以 dx。而他真正的天才之处,是给出了一小串把这些微小片段组合起来的法则——于是你再也不必亲手去「放大」,只要演算就行。

它是如何诞生的

莱布尼茨是律师、外交官,也是哲学家,数学是他很晚才自学、却学得极出色的本事。1670 年代在巴黎,他不但理出了微积分的两半,更同样重要地,定下了我们至今仍在用的那套清爽记号——dx、dy,以及后来的积分号 ∫。1684 年 10 月,他把它发表了出来:在德国期刊《学者纪要》上,密密麻麻的六页。

在海峡对岸,艾萨克·牛顿早约二十年就已得到一套等价的方法,却大体只藏在自己手里。当莱布尼茨率先发表,一场关于「功劳归谁」的激烈争吵随之爆发。皇家学会的一个委员会——背后由牛顿暗中操控——判定莱布尼茨剽窃。如今历史学家一致认为,两人是各自独立发现的。而今天的学生学到的,是莱布尼茨那套整洁的符号,不是牛顿的点。

它为何重要

一旦你能算出任何东西变化得有多快,你就能描述运动、热、生长、电,甚至金钱。微积分成了物理与工程共同的语言:自然的规律,大多写成关于「变化速率」的方程,而这些方程,都用着莱布尼茨的那个 d。几乎没有哪座桥、哪台引擎、哪艘航天器、哪个经济模型,能离得开它。

一个可以想象的画面

想象你夜里开车上一座盘山路,车灯只照亮前方一米。在那被照亮的一米里,路看起来就是一段笔直的斜坡,它的陡度,不过是「你爬升了多少」除以「你前进了多少」——这就是 dy 除以 dx。被照亮的那一段越短,它告诉你的、关于这个确切位置的陡度,就越精确。莱布尼茨的微积分,正是当那段亮路缩到无穷小时,关于这个比值的规则手册。

可交互的曲线:在抛物线、三次曲线或正弦波中选一条,沿曲线滑动一个点并缩小间隔 Δx;一个小三角形(横边 dx、竖边 dy)紧贴曲线,穿过两点的割线一路转动,直到与切线吻合,其斜率落到曲线真正的陡度上。

它的位置

笛卡尔(1637)让代数与几何联姻,费马也有一套求切线与极值的方法——但真正铸成这件通用工具的,是莱布尼茨,以及独立地,牛顿。从这里,一条线径直通向牛顿的《原理》,通向欧拉,通向本馆中的每一个微分方程:傅里叶的热、麦克斯韦的场、薛定谔的波。现代科学中,每当有什么在变化,描述它用的,都是莱布尼茨在这里写下的语言。

The original document
Original source text
G. W. Leibniz · Nova Methodus pro Maximis et Minimis · Acta Eruditorum (Oct. 1684): 467–473
Nova methodus pro maximis et minimis, itemque tangentibus, quae nec fractas nec irrationales quantitates moratur, et singulare pro illis calculi genus
(“A new method for maxima and minima, as well as tangents, which is impeded neither by fractional nor by irrational quantities, and a remarkable type of calculus for them.”)
Leibniz takes a curve referred to an axis, with ordinates v, w, y, z, and tangents VB, WC, YD, ZE meeting the axis at B, C, D, E. He then introduces his central device: a fixed but arbitrary increment, dx, against which every other small difference is measured.
Now some right line taken arbitrarily may be called dx, and the right line which shall be to dx, as v (or w, y, z, resp.) is to VB (or WC, YD, ZE, respect.) may be called dv (or dw, dy, dz, resp.), or the differentials.
Because dv stands to dx as the ordinate stands to its subtangent, the ratio dy/dx is, by definition, the slope of the tangent — and the little right triangle with legs dx and dy, its hypotenuse lying along the tangent, becomes the engine of the whole method.
From this single definition Leibniz states the rules of the calculus, in a form every student still learns: the differential of a constant is zero; d(ax) = a·dx; differentials carry through sums and differences, so d(z − y + w + x) = dz − dy + dw + dx; for a product, d(xv) = x·dv + v·dx; for a quotient, d(v/y) = (y·dv − v·dy)/y²; and for powers and roots, d(xⁿ) = n·xⁿ⁻¹·dx — and, he stresses, these hold whether the exponent is whole, fractional, or irrational.
He then reads meaning into the signs. Where the ordinates stop increasing and turn to decrease (or the reverse), the curve reaches a maximum or a minimum, and there the differential dy is nothing — zero. Where the curve passes from concave to convex, the point of inflection, it is the differences of the differences that change sign.
[ … ]
To show the method's reach, Leibniz closes by solving a problem posed by Florimond de Beaune — to find a curve whose subtangent is everywhere constant — and arrives at the logarithmic curve, a transcendental curve that ordinary algebra cannot capture. The same calculus, he notes, opens problems that had resisted every earlier approach.
Acta Eruditorum · Leipzig · October 1684