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物理学 1975

黑洞产生粒子

斯蒂芬·霍金

量子理论迫使黑洞发光——并极其缓慢地蒸发殆尽。

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In depth · the introduction

黑洞本该让一切都逃不出去——可霍金却证明,它必定在悄悄发光,并在超乎想象的漫长岁月里,蒸发殆尽。

把这个想法拆开看

在爱因斯坦的经典图景里,黑洞只会吞咽:一旦越过那道边缘——事件视界——任何东西,连光在内,都回不来。所以黑洞似乎只可能越长越大。

量子论改变了这一切。真空从不真正空无一物;它无时无刻不在「沸腾」,成对的粒子忽地生出、又忽地湮灭。恰在视界处,一对粒子里的一个可以坠入,而它的伙伴则向外逃逸。对远处的人来说,这一道源源不断逃逸出来的粒子流,看上去正像一个热物体的温暖辉光。于是黑洞便有了温度——并且发光。

它从哪里来

1970 年代初,年轻的研究者雅各布·贝肯斯坦提出了一个离经叛道的想法:黑洞带有熵——一种对无序程度的度量——其大小正比于视界的面积。霍金认为这必定是错的,因为任何有熵、有温度的东西都必须辐射,而黑洞按定义恰恰是不能辐射的。

于是 1973—74 年,他动手用量子力学去反驳它——结果令他自己也大吃一惊:那辐射是真的。他在 1974 年一篇标题俏皮的论文《黑洞爆炸?》里宣布了这一结果,又在这篇 1975 年的论文里,铺陈出完整的理论。

它为何重要

人类第一次,让三大几乎从不相遇的理论,就同一个对象开口,而且众口一词。一个黑洞的温度里,同时含着普朗克常数(量子论)、牛顿引力常数 G(引力)与玻尔兹曼常数(热)。一道公式竟同时需要这三者,这是一块巨大的路标:它直指那门仍然缺席的量子引力理论,并告诉我们——黑洞,正是它将被找到的地方。

一幅精确的图景

把视界想成瀑布的口沿,空间本身正越过这道边缘、流入黑洞。水里不断成对地冒出气泡;在口沿附近,一个气泡被卷了过去,它的伙伴却留在外侧,得以飘走。把这些逃走的伙伴收集起来,它们带来的能量分布,恰恰就是热所给出的那种。而黑洞越小,这道「落差」就越陡、越急——所以它越小,就发光越炽热。

一个代表黑洞的黑色圆盘;质量滑块会放大或缩小圆盘,同时改变周围的辉光——重黑洞又大又暗、冷如冰,轻黑洞又小却辉光炽烈。读数给出温度、史瓦西半径与蒸发寿命。

它在知识谱系里的位置

它接续了一条长线:从玻尔兹曼的 S = k log W——把熵看作对微观可能性的计数——与普朗克对热物体量子辉光的描述,经由爱因斯坦的几何引力,一路抵达黑洞的一条单一热力学定律。2016 年 LIGO 听见其相撞的那些黑洞,按这一结果,也是温度计——是宇宙中最冷的大型物体。而它掀开的那个谜题,即信息佯谬,至今仍是物理学中最尖锐的未解难题之一。

The original document
Original source text
S. W. Hawking · Communications in Mathematical Physics 43 (3), 199–220 · 1975
Abstract
In the classical theory black holes can only absorb and not emit particles. However it is shown that quantum mechanical effects cause black holes to create and emit particles as if they were hot bodies with temperature hκ/2πk ≈ 10⁻⁶(M⊙/M)°K where κ is the surface gravity of the black hole. This thermal emission leads to a slow decrease in the mass of the black hole and to its eventual disappearance: any primordial black hole of mass less than about 10¹⁵ g would have evaporated by now. Although these quantum effects violate the classical law that the area of the event horizon of a black hole cannot decrease, there remains a Generalized Second Law: S+1/4A never decreases where S is the entropy of matter outside black holes and A is the sum of the surface areas of the event horizons.
1 · Introduction
The paper applies quantum field theory to the curved spacetime of a body collapsing to form a black hole, and sets the calculation against the recently noticed analogy between the laws of black-hole mechanics and the laws of thermodynamics — in particular Bekenstein's proposal that the area of the event horizon is a measure of entropy.
2–4 · Quantum fields on a collapsing star
Hawking treats matter as quantum fields propagating on the classical geometry of the collapse. Because the geometry is time-dependent, the notion of "no particles" in the distant past differs from that in the distant future; expanding the late-time modes in terms of the early-time ones (the Bogoliubov coefficients) shows that the initial vacuum is seen, at late times, to contain particles.
The thermal spectrum
The decisive finding is that the expected number of emitted particles in each mode is exactly that of black-body radiation at the temperature κ/2π (in units with G = c = ħ = k = 1), where κ is the surface gravity — modulated only by frequency-dependent grey-body factors from the potential barrier outside the horizon. The emission is genuinely thermal, not a fixed signal.
[ … ]
Back-reaction, evaporation, and the second law
Carrying away energy makes the hole lose mass, so its temperature rises and the emission accelerates toward a final burst; and although a shrinking horizon violates the classical area theorem, the abstract's Generalized Second Law (entropy of matter outside, plus one quarter of the horizon area) is proposed to take its place.
Cambridge · 1975