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生物学 1964

社会行为的遗传演化

威廉·D·汉密尔顿

舍己也能演化——只要它在亲属体内救回足够多份自己。

Choose your version
In depth · the introduction

自然选择奖赏「比邻居生得更多」——那么,为什么有那么多动物,宁可放弃自己生育的机会,去帮助别的个体?

一道关于善意的公式

一位名叫威廉·汉密尔顿的年轻生物学家,用一道不等式作答:r·B > C。一只动物,应该在「收益 B 乘以亲缘度 r」大过「自己付出的代价 C」时,去帮助一位亲属。诀窍,是别再想着这只动物,而去想它的基因。你和兄弟共享一半基因,和表亲共享八分之一——所以,一个让你去帮他们的基因,在某种意义上,正是在帮自己的副本。

这样一看,舍己便不再是演化逻辑里的破绽,反倒是它的一个预言——只要帮助瞄准的是亲属,且账算得过来。

那个曾让达尔文不安的难题

达尔文亲自标出过「一个特别的难题」,并担心它会动摇自己的整套理论:蚂蚁与蜜蜂群落里那些不育的工虫。它们从不繁殖,却生得无比精巧,只为服务蜂巢。「适者生存」,怎么可能造出一种压根没有后代的生物?这道谜题,悬了整整一个世纪。

1964 年,仍是伦敦一名博士生、且多半独自工作的汉密尔顿,发表了一篇晦涩的上下两篇论文,破解了它。那些数学很硬,起初被人忽视,却悄悄重组了整个演化生物学。(多年以前,遗传学家 J·B·S·霍尔丹曾用一句著名的俏皮话点到同一念头——他说自己愿为两个兄弟、或八个表亲舍命——而汉密尔顿,把这句玩笑变成了理论。)

它为何重要

它解释了那些曾看似不可能的行为:让鸣叫者身陷险境的报警声、宁可照看弟妹也不自己生育的动物、整座昆虫社会的架构。更深一层,它递给生物学一面新的透镜——「基因之眼」的视角——在这一视角里,身体在一定程度上,只是一辆把基因送进下一代的车,而搭车的,可以是任何一位恰好携带这些基因的亲属。十年后,这个想法以理查德·道金斯「自私的基因」之名,抵达了大众。

数副本,而不是数身体

把你的基因,想成一条你希望它活下去的讯息。你可以自己带着它——也可以去救另一些恰好也带着同一条讯息的人。一个兄弟带着它的一半;一个表亲,带着八分之一。汉密尔顿法则,不过是一笔仔细的账:唯有当你救回的副本数(亲属的收益,乘以他和你共享的比例)超过你冒险失去的副本数(你的代价)时,才值得花力气去救亲属。救两个兄弟,或八个表亲,账,恰好打平。

一个可交互的面板:一位行动者与一位亲属,彼此共享 r 这一比例的基因。滑块用来设定亲缘度 r、这桩善举给亲属带来的收益 B,以及行动者付出的代价 C。两根条形对比「基因净赚」r×B 与代价 C;当净赚条越过盈亏平衡线,便给出判定:选择青睐这个助亲的基因。

前与后

它直接承接达尔文(1859)与孟德尔的遗传学,又与约翰·纳什的博弈论比肩而立——事实上,同一年造出「亲属选择」一词的约翰·梅纳德·史密斯,很快就把这两者熔成了演化博弈论。汉密尔顿的这笔账,把达尔文「生存竞争」重铸为「基因之间的竞争」,并为「合作的研究」定下了议程——这条线,一直延伸到今天对微生物与人类社会的探索。

The original document
Original source text
W. D. Hamilton · Journal of Theoretical Biology 7: 1–16 (Part I) and 17–52 (Part II) · 1964
Summary (Part I)
A genetical mathematical model is described which allows for interactions between relatives on one another's fitness. Making use of Wright's Coefficient of Relationship as the measure of the proportion of replica genes in a relative, a quantity is found which incorporates the maximizing property of Darwinian fitness, named “inclusive fitness”. Species following the model should tend to evolve behaviour such that each organism appears to be attempting to maximize its inclusive fitness.
Inclusive fitness
Inclusive fitness may be imagined as the personal fitness which an individual actually expresses in its production of adult offspring as it becomes after it has been first stripped and then augmented in a certain way.
Hamilton's bookkeeping: take an individual's own reproductive success, strip out the help and harm done to it by its social environment, then add back its own effects on the reproduction of each relative — every such effect weighted by the coefficient of relationship r (one-half for a full sib, one-eighth for a first cousin, and so on).
The condition for social action
From the model Hamilton derives the threshold now written rb > c: a gene causing a costly act toward a relative is favoured when the benefit b to the recipient, devalued by relatedness r, exceeds the cost c to the actor. In the paper he states the equivalent condition as k > 1/r, where k = b/c is the ratio by which the recipient's gain exceeds the actor's loss.
[ … ]
Applications (Part II)
Part II carries the model across the social insects, parental care, alarm-giving, the evolution of distastefulness and warning colour, and even senescence. The haplodiploidy of the Hymenoptera — under which full sisters share three-quarters of their genes, more than a mother shares with a daughter — is offered to help explain the repeated origin of sterile worker castes.
London · 1964