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数学 1843

论与四元数理论相关的一类新的虚量

威廉·罗恩·哈密顿

添上第四个维度,空间中的方向便能相乘——也能被转动。

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In depth · the introduction

十九世纪一次沿都柏林运河的散步,与你的手机「知道自己朝哪个方向」,能有什么关系?关系大着呢。

可以转动的数

普通的数住在一条线上。复数住在一张平面上,而乘上一个复数,能让一个点旋转起来——这让它们在纸面上描述「旋转」时再合适不过。哈密顿想把同样的魔法搬进三维空间,好让东西能在立体中被转动。卡了许多年之后,他意识到:这个戏法需要第四个维度,外加一桩奇怪的牺牲——在他的新数里,a × b 不再等于 b × a。次序,举足轻重——正如你转动一个物体时那样:先向左、再向上,跟先向上、再向左,落点并不相同。

桥上的那道公式

到 1843 年,爱尔兰首屈一指的数学家威廉·罗恩·哈密顿,已为「如何相乘三元数组」苦苦缠斗多年。10 月 16 日,他与妻子沿皇家运河走向爱尔兰皇家学会的一场会议,答案在一瞬间击中了他——他后来对儿子说,那一刻「一颗火花迸射而出」。生怕忘记,他掏出小刀,把那道关键的公式刻在了经过的布鲁姆桥的石头上:i² = j² = k² = ijk = −1。刻痕早已磨灭,但一块铭牌标出了那个地点,数学家们至今每年都要去那里走一趟「哈密顿之路」。

它为何重要

哈密顿做了一件谁都以为不被允许的事:他造出了一个完整、合理的数系,在其中,乘法的次序会改变答案。这一道「许可」,打开了现代代数——它告诉数学家们:你们可以自由地发明带着新规则的新系统,只要那些规则自洽。而他那些「四个数」的对象——四元数——后来被证明是描述并复合空间旋转的、有史以来最干净的办法;这个用途,要到一个世纪之后才变得不可或缺。

翻动一本书

把一本书平放。先绕一根竖直的轴转 90°,再绕一根水平的轴转 90°,记下封面朝向哪里。现在从头来过,把这两次转动的次序调换——书的朝向会落在一个完全不同的地方。旋转不可交换:次序会改变结果。四元数,就是行为与此一模一样的数——这正是它们能替旋转代言的原因。把四元数按一个次序相乘,得到一个最终朝向;调换次序,得到另一个。

一幅可交互的三维图,画着三根带标记的箭头。滑块选定一个转动角与一根转轴,箭头便随之转动,由你的选择所造出的四元数来驱动。

它在知识谱系中的位置

哈密顿的四元数,是高斯等人让其登堂入室的复数的续篇——一个维度变成了四个;也是许多现代数学的前传:填满本馆后续篇章的矩阵、向量与群论,有一部分正是从它生长出来的。物理学家所画的向量箭头、所用的点积与叉积,是一代人之后从哈密顿的代数里凿出来的。在阴影中沉寂了一个世纪后,四元数随着计算机轰然归来——后者恰恰需要它那份「擅长旋转」的天赋。

The original document
Original source text
W. R. Hamilton · 'On a new Species of Imaginary Quantities connected with a theory of Quaternions' · Proc. Royal Irish Academy 2: 424–434 · communicated 13 November 1843
The fundamental formula
For over a decade Hamilton sought a way to multiply and divide triples of numbers, as complex numbers multiply pairs in the plane. The breakthrough required giving up two things at once: adding a fourth component, and abandoning the commutative law. On 16 October 1843, walking along the Royal Canal in Dublin, the relation came to him, and he cut it into the stone of Brougham Bridge with his pocketknife:
i² = j² = k² = ijk = −1
From this single relation the whole multiplication table follows, and the three imaginary units anticommute:
ij = k, jk = i, ki = j; ji = −k, kj = −i, ik = −j.
[ … ]
Hamilton's own account (letter to his son Archibald, 1865)
An electric circuit seemed to close; and a spark flashed forth, the herald (as I foresaw immediately) of many long years to come of definitely directed thought and work…
Nor could I resist the impulse — unphilosophical as it may have been — to cut with a knife on a stone of Brougham Bridge, as we passed it, the fundamental formula with the symbols, i, j, k; namely, i² = j² = k² = ijk = −1, which contains the Solution of the Problem, but of course, as an inscription, has long since mouldered away.
[ … ]
What a quaternion is
A quaternion is a number with one real and three imaginary parts, q = a + bi + cj + dk. Hamilton named a the 'scalar' part and bi + cj + dk the 'vector' part — coining both words. A unit quaternion encodes a rotation in space: conjugating a vector v by it, v ↦ q v q⁻¹, turns v through that rotation.
Royal Irish Academy, Dublin · 13 November 1843