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数学 1637

几何学(La Géométrie)

勒内·笛卡尔

让代数与几何联姻:曲线化为方程,点化为一对数。

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In depth · the introduction

在笛卡尔之前,代数与几何是两个互不相干的世界。他在它们之间架起一座桥——而我们从此一直走在桥上。

核心想法

笛卡尔的想法,就是你第一次画坐标图时遇到的那个。取两条在一角相交的线;现在,纸上任何一个点,都能用两个数来命名——往右多远、往上多远。这一对数,就是这个点的坐标。神奇之处在于:一个形状不再只是一幅图,而成了数必须遵守的一条规则。圆变成了「x² + y² = 9」;抛物线变成它自己那条短短的方程。原来,几何与代数是同一门学问的两种看法。

它是怎么发生的

1637 年,笛卡尔出版了一本不厚的书《方法论》,谈如何清晰地思考。他在书后附了三篇科学论文作为示范;其中最后一篇《几何学》,正是改变了数学的那一篇。他用法文而非学界的拉丁文写作,演示了如何把一道顽固的几何问题——一道连古希腊人都缠斗过的问题——化成一个你只需求解的方程。他并非全然孤独:一位名叫皮埃尔·德·费马的法国律师,在同一时期、从另一个方向,撞上了同一个想法。在两人之间,坐标几何诞生了。

它为什么重要

一旦曲线成了方程,你就能对它做计算。你可以问两条曲线在哪里相交、曲线在哪里最陡,并用代数而非巧妙的作图来回答。这让下一次飞跃成为可能:一代人之后,牛顿与莱布尼茨用笛卡尔的网格发明了微积分——那门描述「变化」的数学,支撑着整个物理学。你这辈子见过的几乎每一张图,从体温曲线到股价到物理示意图,都活在他所搭起的这个平面上。

一个日常的画面

想象一座按街区铺开的城市。对朋友说「向东三个街区、向北两个街区」,他就能走到唯一的一个路口——那就是一组坐标。现在,把所有恰好离市中心广场五个街区的路口都描出来:你走出的是一个圆,而「离广场五个街区」就是它的方程。笛卡尔的洞见是:方向(代数)与你走出的形状(几何),是同一份信息换了两身行头。

在四条曲线中选一条,拖动滑块让一个点沿它移动;虚线在坐标轴上显示该点的两个坐标,说明曲线就是那些其数满足同一个方程的点的集合。

它在知识谱系中的位置

笛卡尔站在欧几里得与牛顿、莱布尼茨之间。欧几里得的几何(也在本馆)是用直尺与圆规作图建起来的;而牛顿与莱布尼茨的微积分,则由他促成。他承接了文艺复兴新兴的符号代数,把它焊接到古老的曲线几何之上。这道接缝接得太好,我们便用他的名字来称呼它:每一张「笛卡尔」网格,地图或屏幕上的每一个坐标,都源自这一篇文章。

The original document
Original source text

第一卷——仅用直线与圆即可作出的问题

René Descartes · La Géométrie · 1637 · Book I (trans. Smith & Latham, 1925)
Any problem in geometry can easily be reduced to such terms that a knowledge of the lengths of certain straight lines is sufficient for its construction.
Descartes then dissolves the ancient barrier between number and shape. Choosing one segment as a unit, he defines the product, quotient, and roots of line segments by proportion — so that an operation on lines always yields another line, and an equation may freely mix terms of any degree:
… taking one line which I shall call unity in order to relate it as closely as possible to numbers, and which can in general be chosen arbitrarily, and having given two other lines, to find a fourth line which shall be to one of the given lines as the other is to unity (which is the same as multiplication).
Throughout, he writes known quantities with the first letters of the alphabet — a, b, c — and unknowns with the last — x, y, z — and powers as raised numerals (a², a³). With this notation he turns the locus problems of antiquity, above all the four-line problem of Pappus, into a single equation and reads the curve straight off it.
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第二卷——论曲线的本性

Book II · On the Nature of Curved Lines
I could give here several other ways of tracing and conceiving a series of curved lines, each curve more complex than any preceding one, but I think the best way to group together all such curves and then classify them in order, is by recognizing the fact that all the points of those curves which we may call 'geometric,' that is, those which admit of precise and exact measurement, must bear a definite relation to all points of a straight line, and that this relation must be expressed by a single equation.
On this basis Descartes admits into geometry exactly the curves we now call algebraic, classifies them by the degree of their equation, and excludes the 'mechanical' (transcendental) curves — the spiral, the quadratrix. He also gives a general method for the normal to a curve, by requiring a circle to meet it in a double point.
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第三卷——论立体与超立体问题的作图

Book III · On the Construction of Solid and Supersolid Problems
The last book studies equations in their own right: that an equation may have as many roots as its degree; the rule — now bearing Descartes' name — relating the signs of the coefficients to the number of positive and negative roots; that if a is a root the polynomial is divisible by (x − a); and the construction of the roots of cubic and quartic equations as the intersections of curves such as a circle and a parabola.
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