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天文学 1543

《天体运行论》

尼古拉·哥白尼

地球只是一颗普通行星,绕着居中的太阳运转。

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In depth · the introduction

十四个世纪以来,地球一直静止在万物的中心。一位谨慎的波兰教士,做了那件不可思议的事——他让地球动了起来。

核心想法

地球并不特殊。它是一颗和别的行星一样的行星——每天自转一圈,每年绕太阳一圈。坐在中心的是太阳,而非地球;众行星则按各自绕行一周所需的时间,依次排开。

一旦接受这一点,一个古老的谜团就化解了。隔一阵子,某颗行星会像是停下来,在星空里向后漂移几个星期,然后又转回向前。它并不是真的在倒退。只是我们大家都在绕太阳飞奔,而我们正从它旁边超车——或被它超过。

它是如何诞生的

哥白尼是波兰弗龙堡大教堂的一位咏礼司铎(canon),在偷来的闲暇里做天文学。这套体系他很早就想通了——一份简短的手稿《要释》(Commentariolus)约在 1514 年流传——可他随后压了几十年,怕招来讥笑。一位年轻的路德派数学家雷蒂库斯找上门来,把这部大书劝进了印刷所。

书在纽伦堡付印时,一位名叫奥西安德尔的编者,悄悄加了一篇不具名的序言,坚称会动的地球只是一种数学上的方便、并非字面上的真相——以此缓和冲击,却未经许可。据说,哥白尼只在他去世的那一天,1543 年,才见到这部完成的书。

它为何重要

哥白尼并没有证明地球在动。他的体系不比旧的更准,而且仍靠着一层层的圆运转。他改变的,是那个问题本身。凭着把太阳放到中心的胆量,他把天空变成了某种可以测量、可以解释的东西——并给下一个世纪留下一道谜题,由开普勒、伽利略与牛顿接力解完。他也开启了人类漫长的「谦卑」:从创世的中心,被打落成一颗运动着的小小行星。

一个可以想象的画面

想象你在高速公路上超越一辆较慢的车。当你与它并排、再超到前面,那辆车看起来就像相对远处的山丘向后滑去——尽管它其实仍在前进。行星正是如此。当跑得更快的地球,从内圈赶过火星时,火星就会相对星空向后漂移几个星期。天上并不需要画出任何圈套——只要两个旅人同在一条弧线上,一个超过另一个。

可交互的日心模型:太阳居中,地球与一颗可选行星(金星、火星、木星)各沿圆形轨道运行。一条虚线视线从运动中的地球穿过行星,伸向恒星之环,标出行星的视黄经;下方的图把这一黄经随时间画出,跨越一个会合周期,其中向后倒退的逆行段以红色高亮。拖动时间,或点选行星。

它的位置

早在古希腊,阿里斯塔克就已猜到地球在动——但这想法夭折了,托勒密的地心体系一直统治到 1543 年。哥白尼把太阳留在中心,却仍守着完美的圆。半个世纪后,开普勒(《新天文学》,1609,见本馆另一篇)把这些圆弯成了椭圆,而牛顿的《自然哲学的数学原理》(1687)才终于解释了行星何以运动。「哥白尼式的」一词,已用来泛指任何把我们挪出中心的发现。

The original document
Original source text
Nicolaus Copernicus · De revolutionibus orbium coelestium · Nuremberg: Johannes Petreius, 1543 · in six books
The full title
On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres, in six books — printed at Nuremberg in 1543, the year of its author's death. Legend has it Copernicus saw the finished volume only on the last day of his life.
An unsigned preface — added without permission
The printed book opens with an anonymous letter 'To the Reader' (Ad lectorem) arguing that the moving Earth need not be held true, only treated as a convenient device for calculation. Copernicus did not write it: the Lutheran theologian Andreas Osiander, who oversaw the press, slipped it in. Kepler later named him and exposed the substitution.
Dedication to Pope Paul III
Copernicus dedicates the work to the Pope, expecting to be hooted off the stage for setting the Earth in motion, and answers in advance that only the competent may judge such matters:
Mathematics is written for mathematicians.
He nonetheless submits the whole to wiser judgement:
For I am not so enamoured of my own opinions that I disregard what others may think of them.
Book I — the new cosmos
The universe and the Earth are spherical; the Earth turns once a day on its axis and travels once a year around the Sun; the planets are ranked outward from the centre by their periods — Mercury, Venus, the Earth with its Moon, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn — and the fixed stars lie immensely far beyond. Of the Sun's central place Copernicus writes:
At rest, however, in the middle of everything is the sun. For, in this most beautiful temple, who would place this lamp in another or better position than that from which it can light up the whole thing at the same time?
[ … ]
Books II–VI — the working astronomy
Book II treats spherical astronomy with a catalogue of the fixed stars; Book III, the precession of the equinoxes and the Earth's annual motion; Book IV, the Moon; Books V and VI, the longitudes and latitudes of the planets. Throughout, Copernicus keeps uniform circular motion and small epicycles — so the system reproduces the sky about as well as Ptolemy's Almagest, and no better.
Nicolaus Copernicus · Canon of Frombork · 1543