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数学 1936

初等数论中的一个不可解问题

阿隆佐·丘奇

有些是非问题,任何程序都永远答不出。

Choose your version
In depth · the introduction

有些问题听起来再清楚不过——是,还是否?——可丘奇却证明了:没有任何配方、任何机器、任何程序,能够回答得了它们。

核心想法

在你能问出「是不是每个问题都能照着配方解出来」之前,你得先把「配方」究竟是什么钉死。丘奇造出了一门尽可能小的「配方语言」——λ-演算,它只有一个动作:拿一个函数,喂给它一个输入,然后替换。接着他提议:凡是我们直觉上会称作「可计算」的东西,恰恰就是这门小语言所能表达的。这个大胆的等式,如今被称为「丘奇论题」。

当「计算」终于被说清楚,他就能问出一个更锋利的问题——并得到一个惊人的答案。他找到了一个用纯粹数学语言陈述的问题,它的答案总是非是即否,然而没有任何程序,能在每一种情形下都给出正确的答案。不是「我们还没找到」,而是「它不可能存在」。这是真正崭新的东西:一个被证明超出一切方法之外的问题。

它是如何诞生的

1920 年代,伟大的数学家大卫·希尔伯特立下了一份纲领:把全部数学安放在一个稳固到——原则上——可以用一套机械程序去判定任何命题真假的根基之上。那是一个对「整洁、可被彻底知晓的数学」满怀信心的梦。然后,1930 年代把它拆了个稀烂。1931 年,库尔特·哥德尔证明:没有任何一致的系统能证明关于算术的全部真理。几年后,在普林斯顿工作的阿隆佐·丘奇,瞄准了希尔伯特那梦想的剩余部分——「判定问题」。

为了攻它,丘奇和他的学生斯蒂芬·克莱尼、J·巴克利·罗瑟,花了多年发展 λ-演算。克莱尼证明它所计算的函数,与另一种对手定义(「递归」函数)所计算的恰好相同,这份吻合,给了丘奇底气去宣布「可计算性」究竟是什么。数月之后,一位名不见经传的英国年轻人——艾伦·图灵——从一个全然不同的方向撞上了同一堵墙:他设想出一台读纸带的简单机器;而两边的答案,结果竟是同一个。他们合起来的裁决,便是丘奇–图灵论题。

它为何重要

这里,正是计算机科学拿到其根基之处——比第一台电子计算机还早了几十年。通过把「计算」究竟意味着什么说清楚,丘奇让人得以严格地证明:计算机能做什么、又不能做什么。而被证明的头一件事,便是一道极限:有些问题提得明明白白,却没有任何程序能够了结它们。每当一个工具说,它一般而言无法判断你的程序会不会崩溃、会不会陷入死循环,它撞上的,正是丘奇在 1936 年划下的那道边界。

一个可以想象的画面

想想一份菜谱:一串有限的、毫不含糊的步骤,一位有耐心的厨师无须任何机灵就能照做,每次都做出同一道菜。丘奇的主张是:「可计算」恰恰意味着「有这样一份菜谱」。现在,想象一个问题:「照着这份菜谱做下去,到底会不会真正做完?」对某些菜谱,你一眼就看得出答案;但丘奇证明了:不存在一份「万能菜谱」,能在拿到任意一份菜谱时,总是正确地告诉你它会不会做完。这位检查者得胜过每一份菜谱,包括那些巧妙地自我指涉的——而没有任何菜谱办得到这一点。

一个可交互的 λ-演算归约器:挑一个小小的项,按下按钮,每次走一步计算,把「作用于输入的函数」替换成它的结果。大多数项都会收缩成一个整洁的最终形式(1 的后继变成 2;1 加 2 变成 3);而有一个叫 Ω 的项,每走一步都变回它自己、永远跑不完——一个没有终点的小程序。

它的位置

丘奇的这篇论文,是一组非凡三重奏的一角。哥德尔(已在本馆中)证明了真理跑在证明之前;丘奇证明了「可解性」自有其坚硬的极限;而艾伦·图灵,在同一年,用他设想的机器重铸了同一道边界——那是此后每一台计算机的蓝图。把这三者合起来读,1930 年代的它们,描绘出了「推理与机械所能为」的外缘。从香农的信息论到今天的软件,一切都活在它们圈出的那片空间之内。

The original document
Original source text

引言——这个问题

Alonzo Church · An Unsolvable Problem of Elementary Number Theory · Amer. J. Math. 58 (1936): 345–363
There is a class of problems of elementary number theory which can be stated in the form that it is required to find an effectively calculable function f of n positive integers, such that f(x₁, x₂, …, xₙ) = 2 is a necessary and sufficient condition for the truth of a certain proposition of elementary number theory involving x₁, x₂, …, xₙ as free variables.
The purpose of the present paper is to propose a definition of effective calculability which is thought to correspond satisfactorily to the somewhat vague intuitive notion in terms of which problems of this class are often stated, and to show, by means of an example, that not every problem of this class is solvable.

那个定义(丘奇论题)

§7 · The definition of effective calculability (p. 356)
We now define the notion, already discussed, of an effectively calculable function of positive integers by identifying it with the notion of a recursive function of positive integers (or of a lambda-definable function of positive integers).
This definition is thought to be justified by the considerations which follow, so far as positive justification can ever be obtained for the selection of a formal definition to correspond to an intuitive notion.

两个定义,同一概念

On the equivalence of λ-definability and (general) recursiveness
The fact, established by the present author and S. C. Kleene, that every λ-definable function of positive integers is recursive, and conversely, is here taken as fundamental.
Thus it is shown that no more general definition of effective calculability than that proposed above can be obtained by either of two methods which naturally suggest themselves (1) by defining a function to be effectively calculable if there exists an algorithm for the calculation of its values (2) by defining a function F (of one positive integer) to be effectively calculable if, for every positive integer m, there exists a positive integer n such that F(m) = n is a provable theorem.

那个不可解问题

The negative result — a recursively unsolvable problem
It is shown that there is no recursive function of two formulas A and B, whose value is 2 or 1 according as A conv B or not. That is, the property of two well-formed formulas, that they are convertible into each other, is not recursive.
Likewise it is shown that there is no recursive function of a formula whose value tells whether or not the formula has a normal form. A problem which, like these, cannot be solved by any recursive — hence by Church's definition, any effectively calculable — function is said to be unsolvable.
[ … ]
In a companion note, the author applies the same method to Hilbert's Entscheidungsproblem, concluding that the general case of that decision problem for first-order logic is likewise unsolvable.
Alonzo Church · Princeton, New Jersey · received April 15, 1935; presented to the American Mathematical Society, April 19, 1935