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气候科学 1938

《二氧化碳的人为产生及其对温度的影响》

盖伊·斯图尔特·卡伦达

烧煤已经在让地球变暖——这是 1938 年量出来、并算成数字的。

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In depth · the introduction

1938 年,一位蒸汽工程师,利用业余时间,宣称烧煤已经在让整个地球变暖——而且,他给出了一个数字。

把这个想法拆开看

阳光晒暖地面;暖热的地面又以看不见的红外热辐射「发光」,把热散向太空。空气里的二氧化碳,截住其中一部分向外散逸的热,再把一部分送回地面——于是 CO₂ 越多,地表就得运行得越暖,才能把热的账算平。

盖伊·卡伦达关键的洞见,是回应了一个老反驳。水汽也会截热,而且多得多,所以多数科学家断定:多出来的 CO₂ 无关紧要。但新的测量显示:CO₂ 恰好在水汽放行的那些波长上吸热。加入 CO₂,就关上了那扇窗——卡伦达算出:把它翻一倍,会让地球升温约 2 °C。

它从哪里来

卡伦达是一位英国的燃烧工程师,并非气象学家。他在业余时间,收集了世界各地约 200 个气象台站的气温记录,搜罗了大气二氧化碳的旧测量,并表明:在过去半个世纪里,二者一同上升——升温与那气体亦步亦趋。1938 年,他把这一切呈给了皇家气象学会。

反响是冷淡的。辛普森爵士这样的资深人物怀疑:一个业余者,岂能推翻「水汽主宰气候、CO₂ 不过是脚注」的定论。二氧化碳理论已被冷落了数十年;卡伦达几乎独自一人,把它带了回来——这也正是为什么,人为升温的效应至今仍以他命名。

它为何重要

这是第一份真正的证据,表明人类正以燃烧化石燃料的方式,可测量地改变着整个地球的气候。卡伦达复活了一个人人都已弃置的理论,给了它接近正确的数字,并为此后的一切定下议程:测量上升的 CO₂、钉死温度有多敏感、把模型建起来。这一现象,以他之名,被称作「卡伦达效应」。

一个类比

把大气想成地球上方的一块玻璃。阳光径直穿过,晒暖地面;地面放出看不见的热,被玻璃挡下一部分,让里头保持温暖——这就是温室效应。水汽是一块玻璃,本来就在那儿。卡伦达的要点是:CO₂ 是第二块玻璃,它恰好遮暗了第一块留出的那一截窗口。多加这第二块玻璃,屋里就变暖——哪怕只多一点点,也够了。在下方的工具里,把 CO₂ 往上拉,看温度计一路攀升。

一个温室面板:滑块把大气 CO₂ 从 280 升到 600 ppm;一层着色的「毯子」变厚,地表的红外箭头被折返而非逃逸,温度计显示升温。按钮可跳到工业化前、今天、以及 CO₂ 翻倍(约 +2 °C)。

它身处何处

卡伦达立于一条清晰的脉络中。傅立叶第一个描述了温室效应(1824);丁达尔测出了哪些气体会截热(1859);阿伦尼乌斯做了第一次 CO₂ 升温的计算(1896,见本馆)。1938 年,卡伦达以真实的观测,复活了他们的想法。在他之后,普拉斯磨利了物理(1956),基林用他著名的曲线证明了 CO₂ 正在上升(1958,见本馆),真锅与韦瑟拉德建起了第一个可信的气候模型(1967,见本馆)。他,是阿伦尼乌斯的预言与基林的实证之间的桥。

The original document
Original source text
G. S. Callendar · Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, Vol. 64, pp. 223–240 · April 1938
The claim
By fuel combustion man has added about 150,000 million tons of carbon dioxide to the air during the past half century.
Callendar estimates that about three-quarters of that carbon dioxide has stayed in the atmosphere, raising its concentration roughly 10% since 1900 — and he argues this added gas is already warming the Earth.
The mechanism — sky radiation
Earth loses heat to space as long-wave infrared. Carbon dioxide absorbs part of it and re-radiates some back down as “sky radiation.” The theory had been set aside because water vapour, far more abundant, was thought to blanket those wavelengths already. Callendar's pivot was newer absorption data showing that CO₂ absorbs in a band where water vapour is relatively transparent — so adding CO₂ raises sky radiation even with water vapour present. Working through the atmosphere in layers, he puts the warming at roughly 2 °C for a doubling of CO₂, about 0.003 °C per year at then-current rates.
The evidence
He compiles temperature records from some 200 weather stations, finding a rise of a few tenths of a degree over the previous half-century, and matches its size and timing to the measured increase in carbon dioxide.
Conclusion
In conclusion it may be said that the combustion of fossil fuel .. is likely to prove beneficial to mankind in several ways, besides the provision of heat and power.
In the optimism of his day Callendar thought a warmer world might aid northern agriculture and keep, in his phrase, “the return of the deadly glaciers” at bay — a judgement the following century would sharply invert.
[ … ]
Royal Meteorological Society · London · 1938