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地球科学 1922

成岩作用中的反应原理

诺曼·L·鲍温

把一团岩浆缓缓冷却,它便按固定次序、一颗晶体接一颗晶体地,长成几乎所有的火成岩。

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In depth · the introduction

把一块岩石熔化,再让它缓缓冷却,它不会一下子冻结,而是按严格的次序逐步凝固——而正是这个次序,让地球有了如此繁多的岩石。

核心想法

火山岩起初是岩浆——熔融的岩石,多半是稀稀的、暗色的、像玄武岩那样的液体。岩浆冷却时,并不是一下子全部冻结。不同的矿物在不同温度结晶,遵循一个固定的次序。最先出现的晶体是橄榄石那样暗色而沉重的矿物;最后出现的——要等到冷得多的时候——是浅色的石英。

鲍温的发现是:早期的晶体在液体冷却时会不断与残余液体反应,试图转变成新温度下稳定的那种矿物。而妙处在于:如果这些早期晶体被从熔体里「捞」走——比如沉到底部——剩下的液体就被改变了。如此一遍遍下来,一团暗色的玄武质岩浆,便能慢慢变成那种浅色、富硅、可以造出花岗岩的液体。

它是如何诞生的

很长一段时间里,地质学家都困惑不解:火成岩种类繁多,从暗色致密的玄武岩,到浅色轻盈的花岗岩。难道每一种都需要地球深处一个专属的来源?那既浪费,又不大可能。

诺曼·鲍温,二十世纪初在华盛顿卡内基研究院的地球物理实验室工作,他把这个问题搬进了实验室。他熔化真实矿物的混合物,在受控条件下冷却,观察哪些晶体最先、其次、再次出现。从这些实验中,诞生了他 1922 年的论文,以及六年后的著作《火成岩的演化》——也带来了那个优雅的想法:同一团岩浆,按次序结晶、并析出其早期晶体,便能成为几乎整个岩石家族之母。

它为何重要

鲍温把一座岩石「动物园」化成了一个单一的故事。地质学家不必再为每一种岩石另找一个起源,而可以把它们看作同一团冷却、分馏的岩浆沿途的不同阶段。这个想法影响深远:构成大陆大部的富硅花岗岩,可以被理解为更暗色、更深部岩浆晚期、精炼后的残余。它是整个火成岩地质学的组织性思想之一——尽管后来的地质学家表明,它并非故事的全部。

一个可以想象的画面

想象缓缓冻结一杯很咸的盐水。最先形成的是纯净的冰晶,它们会浮起——你把它们撇走,剩下的水就越来越咸,要在越来越低的温度才冻得住。冷却的岩浆做的是同一件事,只是把冰换成了矿物:早期的晶体被「撇」走(它们下沉),剩下的熔体便稳稳地漂向一份不同的、更富硅的配方。同样的起始液体,截然不同的最终岩石。

一张带温度滑块的反应系列图:当你把岩浆从约 1200°C 冷却到 700°C,一支上橄榄石、辉石、角闪石、黑云母依次结晶,另一支上斜长石条带从富钙移向富钠,石英最后形成;侧边一条柱显示剩下的熔体越来越富硅,依次标注为玄武岩、安山岩、流纹岩。

它的位置

一个世纪以前,赫顿(1788)与莱伊尔(1830)已表明岩石在无尽地循环、地球古老得超乎想象。鲍温把化学放进了这个循环,解释了熔融的岩石如何变成我们所见的火成岩家族。后来,板块构造揭示了那些母玄武质岩浆最初从何而来——洋中脊之下熔融的地幔(赫斯 1962;瓦因–马修斯 1963)——也表明混合、混染与水,会让鲍温那幅清爽的图景变得复杂。但他的反应系列,仍是每一位地质学家关于「一块岩石如何诞生」所学到的第一课。

The original document
Original source text
N. L. Bowen · The Journal of Geology 30(3) (1922): 177–198 · Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution
Bowen sets out to explain the central puzzle of igneous petrology: why a single broad parent — a basaltic magma — gives rise to such a wide variety of rocks, from dark, dense basalts and gabbros to pale granites and rhyolites. His answer rests on a principle he draws from the laboratory's phase-equilibrium experiments on silicate melts.
The reaction principle
Crystals that form early from a cooling melt do not simply accumulate unchanged. As the temperature falls, each early crystal tends to react with the surrounding liquid, converting toward the mineral that is stable at the new, lower temperature. Crystal and liquid are continually trying to keep in step — this is the reaction relation, and it governs the whole sequence.
Two kinds of reaction series
Bowen distinguishes two patterns. In the discontinuous series, a mineral reacts with the melt and is replaced by a structurally different mineral at a definite step: olivine gives way to pyroxene, pyroxene to amphibole, amphibole to biotite. In the continuous series, a single mineral — plagioclase feldspar — stays the same mineral but changes its composition smoothly as it cools, from calcium-rich toward sodium-rich.
Fractional crystallization
The principle has a powerful consequence. If the early crystals are physically removed from the melt — settling out under gravity, or filtered away — they can no longer react back, and the leftover liquid is left progressively richer in silica and the low-temperature constituents. Step by step, one basaltic liquid evolves toward intermediate and then felsic compositions. A single parent magma can therefore yield a whole descending series of rocks.
[ … ]
Scope and the larger claim
Bowen argues that this fractionation, more than any other process, accounts for the diversity of the igneous rocks, and weighs it against rival explanations such as the wholesale mixing of magmas or large-scale assimilation of older rock. The reaction series he describes here he later consolidated into the now-famous branching diagram of his 1928 book, The Evolution of the Igneous Rocks.
Geophysical Laboratory, Washington · 1922