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物理学 1877

论热力学第二定律与概率论的关系

路德维希·玻尔兹曼

熵是一种计数:世界滑向无序,只因无序的排法多得无可比拟。

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In depth · the introduction

热量只朝一个方向流,气味会四散,房间会变乱——玻尔兹曼指出,这一切归根结底,是在数数。

核心想法

玻尔兹曼问了一个令人吃惊的问题:熵,究竟是由什么构成的?他的答案是:熵衡量的,是「一样东西在看起来不变的前提下,能有多少种排列方式」。一摞码得整整齐齐的牌,整齐的排法基本只有一种;而一副洗乱的牌,则有亿万种排法。所谓「无序」,无非就是「这样的排法多得多」。

仅凭这一点洞见,整条热力学第二定律——「万物会衰败、热量会散开、秩序会瓦解」——便不再是一条神秘的规矩,而成了算术上的一种近乎必然。系统之所以滑向最无序的状态,和一副洗乱的牌几乎绝不会自己变回整齐,是同一个道理:不是因为有序被禁止,而是因为无序的排法,多到压倒一切、无可想象。

它是如何诞生的

1877 年,在格拉茨工作的路德维希·玻尔兹曼,着手为第二定律寻一个更深的根基。在他之前,卡诺、克劳修斯等人已经描述了熵,也指出它总在增加,却没人能说出「为什么」。玻尔兹曼押下的赌注是:物质由数不清的微小原子构成,而热的定律,本质上是这些原子的概率定律。

那是一场孤独的下注。包括恩斯特·马赫与威廉·奥斯特瓦尔德在内的许多顶尖科学家,根本不相信原子是真实的,他们多年攻击他的工作。素有深度抑郁的玻尔兹曼,被这场争斗磨垮,于 1906 年自尽——而就在不久之后,关于花粉颗粒抖动的实验,终于证实了原子真实存在,也证明他是对的。他在维也纳的墓碑上,刻着方程 S = k log W——以那个由对手、后又成其继承者的马克斯·普朗克所赋予的简洁形式。

它为何重要

这是统计力学的诞生:一门从「多到无法想象的原子」的纷乱统计中,去解释那个庞大、平滑、可测量的世界——温度、压强、热量——的学问。它为「时间之箭」给出了一个理由。而几十年后,同样这套计数,几乎原封不动地,又化作了「信息」本身的公式,把热的物理与现代的数据科学系在了一起。

一个可以想象的画面

想象一间孩子的卧室。它「整洁」的样子,基本只有一种——每个玩具都在它该在的确切位置。但它「凌乱」的样子,却有千百万种——玩具随便扔在任何地方。于是,只要东西被随机地碰来碰去,房间便压倒性地终归于乱,仅仅因为「乱」有多得多的实现方式。熵,就是这种「方式的数目」;而第二定律,无非是房间在服从概率。

可交互的盒子,气体分子分在两半;拖动滑块把分子从一边移到另一边。全在一侧时只有唯一一种排法;均匀铺开则有天文数字般多,熵的读数与下方的曲线都在均匀对半处达到峰值。

它的位置

卡诺(1824)测出了热机的效率,克劳修斯为那个总在增长的量取名「熵」;玻尔兹曼则告诉我们,这熵究竟是什么。他数状态的方法,随后被马克斯·普朗克借去,在 1900 年攻克了黑体问题(见 普朗克 1900)——那是量子物理的开局一步——又在 1948 年被克劳德·香农再次借用,他那个关于信息的公式,与玻尔兹曼的一模一样、一字不差(见 香农 1948)。

The original document
Original source text
L. Boltzmann · Wien. Ber. 76 (1877): 373–435 · trans. Sharp & Matschinsky, Entropy 17 (2015)
Clausius and Carnot had given the second law a precise but mute form: in any isolated change a certain quantity, the entropy, can only increase. Why it must increase — what entropy is made of — they did not say. Boltzmann's proposal is that the answer is combinatorial: count the molecular arrangements, and the law follows from arithmetic.
Macrostate and microstate
Describe a gas two ways. The macrostate is the coarse, measurable description — so much energy spread over the molecules in such-and-such a distribution. A microstate (Boltzmann's "complexion") is the exact list of which molecule has which share. Many microstates look identical from the outside; the number that realise a given macrostate is its permutability measure, what we now call W.
For a distribution that places N₁ molecules in the first energy cell, N₂ in the second, and so on, that number is the multiplicity W = N! / (N₁! N₂! ⋯). The macrostate with the most complexions is the most probable; maximising W under fixed particle number and fixed total energy yields exactly the Maxwell distribution of molecular speeds.
Entropy is the logarithm of W
Because independent systems multiply their numbers of complexions while their entropies must add, entropy can only be proportional to the logarithm of the permutability measure. The second law then ceases to be a separate axiom: an isolated system drifts toward equilibrium simply because the equilibrium macrostate is realised by so vastly many more microstates that any large departure from it is, in practice, never seen.
[ … ]
Irreversibility, on this view, is not a law of mechanics but a statement of overwhelming odds. The molecules obey time-reversible equations; what makes heat flow one way is only that the disordered outcomes outnumber the ordered ones beyond all imagining. (The compact engraving S = k log W, with the constant k, is Max Planck's later form, c. 1900; Boltzmann wrote the proportionality, not the constant.)
Ludwig Boltzmann · Graz, 1877