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物理学 1913

论原子与分子的构造

尼尔斯·玻尔

电子不会旋落坠入原子核——它们只住在固定的台阶上,而光,就是台阶之间的一跃。

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In depth · the introduction

玻尔找到了那条让原子免于坍缩的规则——并把一团发光气体里的彩色谱线,变成了原子的指纹。

核心想法

到 1913 年,物理学家已经知道原子大体是空的:一个又小又重的原子核,电子在它周围,像行星绕着太阳。可这里有一个致命的破绽。一个绕核疾转的电子,按已知的电学定律,应当不断以光的形式漏掉能量,并在不到十亿分之一秒里旋落坠入中心。原子本不该存在。可我们偏偏在这里。

玻尔的回答既激进又简单:电子只被允许待在原子核周围某些固定的「台阶」上,绝不在中间。在某一台阶上,它不损失能量。它只能通过从一个台阶跳到另一个台阶来改变——而当它落到更低的台阶,多出来的能量就作为一颗单一颜色的光粒子飞走。每种元素都有自己的一架台阶,于是每种元素都放出自己独有的一组颜色:一组用光写成的条形码。

它是如何诞生的

尼尔斯·玻尔是一位 27 岁的丹麦人,刚在曼彻斯特、在发现了原子核的欧内斯特·卢瑟福身边待了几个月。坍缩这个难题一直萦绕着他;还有光谱学家手里的一组数字:氢那些彩色谱线的波长,符合一个古怪的小公式——它由一位名叫巴耳末的瑞士中学教师在 1885 年找出,却没人能解释。

转机出现在一位同事把巴耳末公式指给玻尔看的时候。他后来说:「我一看到巴耳末公式,整件事立刻就清楚了。」他意识到,巴耳末公式里的那个整数,数的不过就是他的台阶。他把卢瑟福的原子核、普朗克的能量量子与巴耳末的数字合在一起——氢的光谱就精确地出来了,那个正确的常数,还能从电子的质量与电荷算出。1913 年,他把它分三篇论文发表。

它为何重要

有两点。其一,它拯救了原子:给出了「物质为何稳定、又为何以锐利的颜色而非一片模糊发光」的清晰规则。其二,也更重大——它表明,量子,即普朗克「能量是一块一块给出的」那个想法,并不是炽热炉膛里的一桩怪癖,而是原子本身的支配法则。在玻尔之后,你再也不能用普通物理去对待原子的内部。那个陌生的新量子世界是真实的,而且无处不在。

一个可以想象的画面

把它想成楼梯,而非斜坡。在斜坡上,你可以站在任意高度;在楼梯上,你只能站在台阶上。原子里的电子就站在一架楼梯上:它可以待在第 1 级、第 2 级、第 3 级……但绝不会停在半中间。要往上,它必须恰好吸收一级(或更多级)的能量;当它落下,便把恰好那么多能量,作为一道单一颜色的闪光放出。不同的原子,有间距不同的楼梯——这正是霓虹灯是红的、钠灯是橙的,而把星光分解成各种颜色后,就能告诉我们恒星由什么构成的原因。用下面的工具,挑一次跃迁,看看跳出什么颜色。

一幅可交互的玻尔原子图:一架氢能级的阶梯,配两个滑块,用来挑选电子从哪一级跃迁、又落到哪一级;一支箭头显示这次跃迁,放出的光则作为一条彩色谱线出现在光谱条带上。

它在知识谱系里的位置

玻尔的原子,是两个时代之间的合页。在它身后,站着普朗克(1900)与爱因斯坦(1905),是他们最先发现能量与光是一份一份的;在它身前,站着海森堡与薛定谔,是他们在 1925–26 年建起了完整的量子力学,并用更模糊的「概率云」取代了玻尔整齐的轨道。玻尔那幅具体的图像——电子在圆形轨道上——在细节上被证明是错的,可他的核心想法,分立的能级与其间的量子跃迁,却恰恰是对的,并至今是我们理解光与物质的骨架。这也是你在学校里最先遇到的那个原子。

The original document
Original source text
Niels Bohr · Philosophical Magazine, Series 6, vol. 26 (1913) · Part I pp. 1–25, Part II pp. 476–502, Part III pp. 857–875 · received 5 April 1913
Part I — Binding of electrons by positive nuclei
Bohr begins from Rutherford's nuclear atom: nearly all the mass and all the positive charge packed into a centre far smaller than the atom, with the electrons outside. Classical electrodynamics makes this picture impossible — an orbiting electron is an accelerating charge, so it must radiate its energy away and spiral into the nucleus in a fraction of a nanosecond. The atom should not be stable, and ordinary mechanics says nothing about why elements emit sharp spectral lines.
Bohr's escape is to carry Planck's quantum into the atom — to deny that radiation is given off continuously:
the energy radiation from an atomic system does not take place in the continuous way assumed in ordinary electrodynamics, but that it, on the contrary, takes place in distinctly separated emissions
The two principal assumptions
On this basis Bohr states the two postulates on which the whole theory rests:
(1) That the dynamical equilibrium of the systems in the stationary states can be discussed by help of the ordinary mechanics, while the passing of the systems between different stationary states cannot be treated on that basis.
(2) That the latter process is followed by the emission of a homogeneous radiation, for which the relation between the frequency and the amount of energy emitted is the one given by Planck's theory.
From these two rules together with Planck's constant, Bohr derives the energy of each allowed orbit and the frequency of the light emitted when an electron drops between two of them. For hydrogen the result reproduces the Balmer formula exactly, and the empirical Rydberg constant falls out as a combination of the electron's mass and charge with Planck's constant — a number Bohr could compute from first principles and set against the spectroscopists' measurements.
[ … ]
Parts II & III — atoms and molecules
The later instalments extend the scheme to atoms with several electrons arranged in rings, and to simple molecules such as the hydrogen molecule, estimating their binding energies. These many-electron pictures proved far less durable than the hydrogen result, but they began the long project of explaining the periodic table by how electrons fill one shell after another.
Niels Bohr · Manchester & Copenhagen · 1913