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化学 1813

论化学比例的成因

永斯·雅各布·贝采利乌斯

给每种元素一个一两个字母的符号——再把每种化合物写成一道称过重量的配方。

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In depth · the introduction

每次你写下 H₂O,你用的都是一位瑞典化学家在 1813 年发明的密码——元素的首字母,用拉丁文拼出。

核心思想

永斯·雅各布·贝采利乌斯给化学造了一套字母表。他给每种元素取其拉丁名里的一两个字母作名——O 表氧、H 表氢、Fe 表铁(ferrum)、Na 表钠(natrium)——再把这些字母串起来写成化合物,并用一个小数字标明每种元素各有几个原子。水成了 H₂O;白垩、铁锈、食盐,各得到了一个简短而确切的标签。化合物的「配方」第一次能写在一行里,任何国家的化学家都读得懂,任何印刷工都排得出。

它如何诞生

贝采利乌斯是那个时代最一丝不苟的分析家,在斯德哥尔摩工作,仪器常常自己制作,一次又一次地称量反应的产物,只为钉死每种元素究竟以多少分量结合。他想解释元素为何总以固定比例相结合,而他的答案是电学的:他认为每种元素或带正电、或带负电,化合物就是相反的电荷彼此攥住——这个念头来自新发明的电池「伏打电堆」,它能把水拉开成两半带电的成分。

为了应付潮水般的测量数据,他需要一套速记。道尔顿曾把元素画成带点、带线的小圆圈——别致,却无法印刷,化合物一复杂就彻底没辙。贝采利乌斯把它们一扫而空,改用字母。他这篇文章背后的理论后来被证明是错的;而那一套字母,却成了科学史上最经久不衰的发明之一。

它为何重要

一套共同的记号,让化学得以变得精确而可累加。一旦化学式能被毫不含糊地书写、印刷,结果就能跨越国界相互比较,反应就能逐个原子地配平,物质的记账也成了可以在纸上核对的东西。贝采利乌斯还做出了那个世纪最好的一张原子量表,于是这些符号不只是名字——它们还携带着数字,一道化学式就告诉你一种物质内部按重量计的精确比例。

一个日常的画面

想想音乐是怎样从用文字描述——「这里弹快一点,那里亮一点」——变成写在五线谱上的:任何地方的乐手都能读出确切的音符。贝采利乌斯为物质做了同样的事。在他之前,一种化合物是一段描述性的文字;在他之后,它是一行简短而精确的符号——一份写给物质的乐谱,全世界都学会了去读。

选水、二氧化碳、食盐等;每一种都显示为字母化学式,并配一根把质量按元素切分的色条,标着符号与百分比。

它在故事中的位置

贝采利乌斯站在道尔顿的原子(1808)与现代化学键(见路易斯,1916)之间。道尔顿说物质由原子构成、以整数比相结合;贝采利乌斯则给这些结合配上了书面语言和精确的重量。他自己的解释——成键是相反电荷的吸引——在化学家发现电负的氯能悄悄替换电正的氢时被推翻;这套观念甚至让他否定了阿伏伽德罗的分子(见阿伏伽德罗,1811),把那个想法耽搁了五十年。理论褪色了;而他造的那套字母表,承载了此后每一个化学观念,不曾更改。

The original document
Original source text
Jöns Jacob Berzelius · “Essay on the Cause of Chemical Proportions, and on Some Circumstances Relating to Them; together with a Short and Easy Method of Expressing Them” · Annals of Philosophy 2–3 (1813–1814)
The problem
By 1813 chemists knew that elements combine in fixed proportions by weight — Dalton's atoms, Richter's stoichiometry, Proust's definite proportions — but they had no agreed table of those weights and no clean way to write a compound down. Dalton's circles-and-dots pictograms were pretty but unprintable and unscalable. Berzelius set out both to explain why the proportions are fixed and to give chemistry a notation a typesetter could handle.
A short and easy method of expressing them
The chemical signs ought to be letters, for the greater facility of writing, and not to disfigure a printed book.
I shall take therefore for the chemical sign, the initial letter of the Latin name of each elementary substance.
So oxygen becomes O, hydrogen H, sulphur S. Where two elements share a first letter, a second letter is added — and where the Latin name diverges from the English, the Latin wins: mercury (hydrargyrum) is Hg, iron (ferrum) Fe, sodium (natrium) Na. The number of atoms of each was written as a small figure (Berzelius set it as a superscript; the subscript came later), so a compound is spelled out as a weighed recipe: so many of this, so many of that.
The cause: electrochemical dualism
Berzelius's proposed reason the proportions are fixed was electrical. Every element, he argued, is inherently electropositive or electronegative; a compound is the union of an electropositive and an electronegative part, held by the attraction of their opposite charges — the very polarity the voltaic pile reveals when it tears water into electropositive hydrogen and electronegative oxygen. Fixed combining weights followed, in his telling, from fixed electrical character.
[ … ]
A table of weights
The essay closes with what its title promises: a table of the elements' relative weights, fixed against oxygen, together with worked formulas for many compounds in the new signs. Berzelius spent two decades refining these numbers by painstaking analysis; by 1818 he had usable atomic weights for some forty-five elements, many strikingly close to today's values.
Stockholm · 1813–1814