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生物化学 1961

天然核糖核酸酶从还原链的重新形成

克里斯蒂安·安芬森、埃德加·哈伯、迈克尔·塞拉 与 弗雷德·怀特

蛋白质的三维形状,完全写在它自己的氨基酸序列里。

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In depth · the introduction

把一个蛋白质拆解到只剩一团没用的乱线——再看它如何全凭自己,把自己重新打成那个分毫不差的正确形状。

核心想法

蛋白质是一长串氨基酸「珠子」,会折叠成精确的三维形状,而正是形状,让每个蛋白质得以胜任它的工作。一个很自然的问题是:是谁来折叠它们?细胞里是否有一台机器,把每条链一一掰到位?

安芬森与同事们证明,答案就藏在链本身。他们把核糖核酸酶——一种切割 RNA 的酶——彻底拆开,展成一条软塌塌、毫无活性的细绳。然后,他们只是任它静置。它便自行折叠,回到原来那个能工作的形状。除了它自身的化学,没有任何东西把它推到那里。原来,形状的指令,完全写在珠子的排列次序之中。

它是如何诞生的

1950 年代末,生物学家知道蛋白质有特定的折叠,却不知是什么定下了它。核糖核酸酶是个好试验对象:小巧、结实,由四枚内部的「订书钉」(二硫键)把八个含硫的氨基酸缝在一起。安芬森的团队,在美国国立卫生研究院,剪断全部四枚订书钉,又在强力的化学浴里把链展开。酶随即失活。

随后,他们把化学品洗去、让空气重新进入。八个硫原子慢慢地再次找到正确的搭档——在它们可能的 105 种配对方式里,重新结成那唯一的天然组合——酶便完全复活。一个漂亮的转折为它盖棺定论:当他们让链在仍未折叠时就去重新缝合,它便锁进一团错误的「乱配」之中、几乎毫无活性,可只要加一撮对的化学品,订书钉就能重排,蛋白质又稳稳落回它真正的形状。安芬森因这一思想,获得了 1972 年的诺贝尔化学奖。

它为何重要

这把蛋白质折叠,变成了一个可解的物理问题:如果单凭序列就决定形状,那么原则上,你就能读一个蛋白质的序列、算出它的结构。这个梦想驱动了数十年的工作,并最终被 AlphaFold 实现——它直接由序列预测一个蛋白质的三维形状。同一条原理,也支撑着设计全新的蛋白质,以及理解那些蛋白质折叠出错的疾病。

一个可以想象的画面

想象一条配重特别的项链,无论你怎样把它揉皱、丢下,它总会落成同一个结——因为那个结,正是它最放松、能量最低的形状。一条蛋白质链也是如此:它的序列经过「挑选」,使某一种特定的折叠成为最舒服的歇息态,于是链便「向下」滚进去。把它以错误的方式缠住、锁死,它就卡住了;只要松开恰到好处的一点,它每一次都会滑回同一个最终的结。

一幅自由能地形图,有一个未折叠的山谷和一个更深的天然山谷;滑块加入变性剂、抹平天然山谷,于是蛋白质展开、活性计下降,而「锁死订书钉」模式把它困在错误的乱配状态里。

它的位置

序列刚刚变得可读——桑格在 1950 年代初拼出了胰岛素的氨基酸——而沃森与克里克的 DNA,则展示了这序列如何被储存与复制。安芬森补上了下一环:序列不只是基因的信息,它还会把自己折叠成一台能工作的机器。这一串思想,径直通向今天的结构预测工具与蛋白质设计,也通向对阿尔茨海默病等折叠错误疾病的研究。

The original document
Original source text
C. B. Anfinsen, E. Haber, M. Sela & F. H. White Jr. · Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 47 (1961): 1309–1314
The question
A folded protein has a precise three-dimensional shape on which its function depends. Does the cell need special machinery to fold it, or is the shape already dictated by the chain itself? The authors test this with an enzyme they can unfold and then watch refold in a test tube.
The protein
Bovine pancreatic ribonuclease A is a small, robust enzyme of 124 amino acids. Its single chain is cross-linked by four disulfide bonds, formed between eight cysteine residues — internal staples that hold the fold together.
Unfolding it
Treating ribonuclease with a reducing agent (β-mercaptoethanol) in concentrated urea breaks all four disulfide bonds and dissolves the compact structure into a floppy, randomly coiled chain. The enzyme loses essentially all of its activity.
Letting it refold
When the urea and reducing agent are removed and the unfolded chain is exposed to air, it slowly reoxidises. Over a few hours — after a measurable lag — enzyme activity returns to nearly its full original level, as the eight cysteines find and reform the correct, native set of disulfide bonds with no outside help.
The scrambled control
Reoxidised while still held unfolded in 8 M urea, the chain instead locks into a near-random, "scrambled" mixture of disulfide bonds and shows only about one percent of normal activity. Add back a trace of reducing agent — enough to let the bonds break and reshuffle — and the molecule relaxes to the same native structure, recovering full activity.
[ … ]
Eight cysteines can be joined into four disulfides in 105 different ways, only one of them native; random pairing would give about one part in a hundred. That the chain nonetheless reaches the native set essentially every time means the native fold is selected by stability, not by chance or by the order in which bonds happen to form.
The conclusion — later called the thermodynamic hypothesis, or Anfinsen's dogma — is that the information specifying a protein's native three-dimensional structure is contained in its amino-acid sequence, and the native fold is simply its most stable (lowest free-energy) state under physiological conditions.
National Institutes of Health, Bethesda · 1961