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物理學 1804

關於物理光學的實驗與計算

托馬斯·楊

光分作兩路後交疊成明暗條紋——所以光必定是一種波。

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In depth · the introduction

讓光穿過兩個開口,在兩束光重疊之處,你看到的不是更亮的一團模糊——而是一道道條紋。那正是波的指紋。

核心想法

往平靜的水面丟兩顆石子,漣漪盪開、彼此交錯。兩道波峰相遇,便疊成更高的峰;波峰遇上波谷,則抹平為烏有。托馬斯·楊證明,光做的正是同一件事。讓一束光沿兩條略有差別的路徑走,再合到一起,牠們在某些地方相加、在另一些地方相消——排出一列明暗交替的條紋,他稱之為干涉條紋。

粒子做不到這一點。兩股小子彈相遇,永遠只會是更多的子彈;牠們絕不會相消、留下一道暗縫。所以這些條紋就是證據:光以波的方式行進。而條紋的間距,又告訴了楊一件前人從未量過的事——單獨一個光波的長度:小得驚人,只有千分之幾毫米,而且每種顏色各不相同。

它是如何誕生的

一百年裡,艾薩克·牛頓那高聳的權威已經把事情定了案:光是一陣微小粒子,即「微粒」。在英國說別的話,幾乎等同於異端。能來做這件事的人,正是托馬斯·楊——一位醫生,也是最後幾位真正的博學通才之一,他甚至在業餘還幫著破譯了羅塞塔石碑上的象形文字。

約在 1803 年,楊找到一個簡單到只需陽光的演示。他讓一束細窄的陽光,從針孔進入暗室,再把一張窄卡片側著舉進光束裡,把它一分為二。在遠處的牆上,卡片的影子被彩色條紋劃開——而對一個普通影子來說不可思議的是:它的正中央竟然是亮的。1803 年,他把這些讀給了皇家學會。回應是嘲弄:一位匿名批評者奚落了他,英國又抱著牛頓多撐了十五年,直到法國人奧古斯丁·菲涅耳,給了楊的想法無可辯駁的數學。

它為何重要

確認了光是一種波,重塑了整個物理學。經由菲涅耳、再到馬克士威,它最終通向一個發現:光是一種電磁波;它還給了科學一件精密工具——干涉——靠數條紋來測量極微小的距離。兩個世紀之後,正是同一個實驗,一次只放一個粒子去做,成了窺見量子力學之詭異最清澈的一扇窗。

一個可以想像的畫面

想像兩隻喇叭,播放著完全相同的一個純音。你沿著牠們前方的牆慢慢走,聲音便一會兒漲、一會兒落,漲了又落:在某些位置,兩道聲波同步到來、彼此加強;在另一些位置,牠們錯步到來、相消成一處安靜。楊的明暗條紋,就是這些響處與靜處——只不過換成了光而非聲,而且間距細到你看見的是條紋,而非聽見的是寂靜。

可互動的雙縫干涉:一個滑桿調狹縫間距、一個調波長(顏色),重繪螢幕上的明暗條紋與強度曲線,並在中央亮紋與一級亮紋之間標出條紋間距——狹縫越寬或光越藍,條紋就擠得越密。

它的位置

克里斯蒂安·惠更斯早在 1690 年便主張光以波的方式傳播,但牛頓那套對手般的粒子圖像曾佔了上風。楊的條紋,把天平扳了回來;菲涅耳的數學,把它釘死;而馬克士威後來揭示了光究竟是哪一種波——電場與磁場的一道漣漪。同一個「兩條路徑」的實驗,如今活在物理學的兩個極端:既在像 LIGO 那樣、聆聽重力波的巨型干涉儀裡,也在量子實驗室中,讓單個粒子顯出波的模樣。

The original document
Original source text
Thomas Young · Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. 94 (1804): 1–16 · read 24 November 1803
In making some experiments on the fringes of colours accompanying shadows, I have found so simple and so demonstrative a proof of the general law of the interference of two portions of light, which I have already endeavoured to establish, that I think it right to lay before the Royal Society, a short statement of the facts which appear to me so decisive.
The general law
Whenever two portions of the same light arrive at the eye by different routes, either exactly or very nearly in the same direction, the light becomes most intense when the difference of the routes is any multiple of a certain length, and least intense in the intermediate state of the interfering portions; and this length is different for light of different colours.
The experiment
I made a small hole in a window-shutter, and covered it with a piece of thick paper, which I perforated with a fine needle. … I brought into the sun-beam a slip of card, about one-thirtieth of an inch in breadth, and observed its shadow, either on the wall, or on other cards held at different distances.
Besides the fringes of colour on each side of the shadow, the shadow itself was divided by similar parallel fringes, of smaller dimensions, differing in number, according to the distance at which the shadow was observed, but leaving the middle of the shadow always white.
[ … ]
From a comparison of various experiments, it appears that the breadth of the undulations constituting the extreme red light must be supposed to be, in air, about one 36 thousandth of an inch, and those of the extreme violet about one 60 thousandth.
Read before the Royal Society of London · 24 November 1803