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氣候科學 1861

論氣體與蒸氣對熱的吸收與輻射

約翰·丁達爾

他在實驗室裡測出:水汽和二氧化碳困得住熱,而空氣的主成分卻不能。

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In depth · the introduction

約 1859 年,在倫敦的一間地下室裡,約翰·廷得耳讓一束熱穿過黃銅管,發現替我們這顆行星保暖的氣體,根本不是空氣的主成分——而是一縷水汽和一絲二氧化碳。

核心想法

空氣主要是氮和氧。廷得耳讓輻射熱——熱物體放出的看不見的暖意——一種一種地穿過裝著不同氣體的管子,量出每種氣體吸住了多少。純氮、氧、氫與乾燥空氣,都讓熱徑直穿過,彷彿管子是空的。

可二氧化碳把熱喝了下去,水汽喝得更多。於是,困住地球暖意的,恰恰是那些稀少的氣體——那一絲二氧化碳與空氣裡的潮氣——而非大氣的主體。這正是行星得以溫暖的緣由:那寥寥幾種氣體,像一床毯子般替它的熱保溫。

它是如何誕生的

廷得耳不只是物理學家,也是登山者與冰川觀察者,他著迷於冰期究竟從何而來。要追究這個,他得先弄清:大氣本身能否留住熱——這一點當時多數科學家都懷疑,他們假定氣體對熱不過是透明的。

他造了一套極其靈敏的裝置:一束熱、一根長管,再加一隻接著電流計的熱電堆,指針在最微弱的變化下也會擺動。最難的是潔淨——黏在玻璃器皿上的零星水汽會自顧自地吸熱,險些騙過了他。等到把一切徹底乾燥,結論已無可置疑:簡單氣體透明,複合氣體不然,而潮濕的空氣比乾燥的更善於困熱。他於 1859 年在皇家研究院宣布此事,並在 1861 年的貝克爾講座中和盤托出。

它為何重要

廷得耳把溫室效應從一種直覺,變成了一項測得的事實。幾十年前,約瑟夫·傅立葉猜想空氣讓地球比空蕩的太空更暖;廷得耳則一種氣體接一種氣體地表明:是哪些氣體在起作用、作用有多強。他甚至寫道——既然困熱的是水汽與二氧化碳,那麼它們的量一旦改變,氣候就必隨之改變——這正是我們今天對暖化世界的全部理解的那粒種子。

一個可以想像的畫面

想像一扇特製玻璃窗:它讓光進來,卻不讓暖意出去。陽光傾瀉進來、曬熱房間;溫熱的房間散發看不見的熱,而玻璃把這熱留住。氮和氧像一扇普通的開著的窗——熱徑直穿過。二氧化碳與水汽,才是那塊特製的玻璃。空氣裡這種玻璃並不多,但正是它,決定了房間——也就是整個行星——最終有多暖。

可互動的輻射熱管:選擇一種氣體(乾燥空氣、碳酸、沼氣、水汽或乙烯),滑動它充滿黃銅管的程度;一束輻射熱穿過管子射向熱電堆,電流計指針隨被吸收的熱而偏轉。乾燥空氣幾乎不吸收;複合氣體則強烈吸收。

它的位置

廷得耳站在約瑟夫·傅立葉的肩上——後者在 1820 年代頭一個追問:地球為何比它「應有的」更暖。比廷得耳早三年,美國的尤妮斯·富特已表明:陽光下,富含二氧化碳的空氣升溫最多,她甚至提出這種氣體越多、世界便越暖——這一優先權如今已獲承認。廷得耳補上了精確的實驗室測量;斯萬特·阿倫尼烏斯隨後在 1896 年把它化為一個數字;查爾斯·基林則在 1958 年開始測量二氧化碳的真實攀升。這根黃銅管,正是那條鏈子的起點。

The original document
Original source text
John Tyndall · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society 151 (1861): 1–36 · the Bakerian Lecture, developed from his Royal Institution discourse of 10 June 1859
The lecture opens from a settled assumption Tyndall set out to test: that the great gases of the atmosphere are simply transparent to radiant heat, mere bystanders to the warmth that passes through them. If that were true, the air could play no part in regulating the Earth's temperature. He resolved to measure, gas by gas, how much heat each one actually absorbs.
The instrument
He passed a beam of radiant heat from a heated source down the length of a polished brass tube and onto a sensitive thermopile, whose tiny voltage swung the needle of a galvanometer. By comparing the beam through an emptied tube with the beam through a tube filled with a chosen gas, the deflection of the needle measured exactly how much heat that gas had absorbed — a difference his apparatus could register to a small fraction of a degree.
The elementary gases are transparent
Oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen and dry, carefully purified air, admitted into the tube, scarcely moved the needle at all: to radiant heat they behave almost as if the tube were empty. The simple, two-atom gases that make up the bulk of the air are, in Tyndall's term, sensibly transparent.
The compound gases absorb
The compound gases told the opposite story. Carbonic acid (carbon dioxide), olefiant gas (ethylene), the vapours of many liquids, and above all aqueous vapour absorbed the heat strongly — olefiant gas the most powerfully of those he tried. Crucially, the water vapour always present in ordinary air made it a far stronger absorber of heat than the dry, purified gas; the small amount of vapour in the laboratory air already intercepted many times more heat than the air itself.
A change of climate
From this Tyndall drew the consequence that the atmosphere's power to retain the Earth's heat rests not on its abundant gases but on its trace constituents — water vapour first of all, and the carbonic acid diffused through it:
if, as the above experiments indicate, the chief influence be exercised by aqueous vapour, every variation of this constituent must produce a change of climate.
A change in the amount of these heat-absorbing gases, he reasoned, would change the temperature at the surface — the first experimental grounding for the idea that the air's minor gases hold the planet's thermostat.
[ … ]
Royal Institution, London · 1859–1861