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物理學 1895

論一種新的射線

威廉·康拉德·倫琴

一種穿透血肉、卻穿不透骨頭的不可見射線——讓我們看進活生生的身體內部。

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In depth · the introduction

一個冬夜,一位物理學家看見漆黑房間另一頭的螢幕發起光來——幾週之後,全世界都能給自己的骨頭拍照了。

核心想法

倫琴發現了一種不可見的射線,它能徑直穿過柔軟的東西——紙、木頭、血肉——卻被金屬、骨頭這類緻密之物擋住。由於骨頭比血肉擋住更多的射線,只要你把手放在射線與螢幕之間,骨頭投下的陰影,就比四周的皮肉更暗。人類第一次,不必切開身體,就能看進一具活生生的身體內部。

他並不知道這射線究竟是什麼,於是給它起了一個科學家面對未知時最誠實的名字:X——那個代表未知量的符號。這個名字就此沿用了下來。

它是如何誕生的

1895 年 11 月,威廉·倫琴在他維爾茨堡的實驗室裡,用放電管做實驗——那是一種抽掉了大部分空氣的玻璃管,高壓通過時會發光。他小心地用黑色硬紙板把一支管子裹了起來,擋住它所有的光。在黑暗的房間裡,他注意到一公尺外有一絲微弱的閃光:一小塊塗著螢光化學物的螢幕,正自顧自地亮著。有某種不可見之物,正穿過硬紙板抵達那裡。

在七個近乎著魔的星期裡——據說他吃住都在實驗室——他拿這種新射線去試遍了所能找到的一切。相傳,他請妻子安娜·貝爾塔把手放在一張照相底片上。當她看見自己骨架的影像、結婚戒指漂浮在骨頭四周時,據說她驚呼:「我看見了我的死亡。」年底,他發表了一份簡短而謹慎的報告,消息便繞著地球飛奔開來。

它為何重要

幾乎在一夜之間,醫學得以看進病人體內。數月之內,醫生便開始用 X 射線尋找骨折與彈片——這樣的普及速度,幾乎聞所未聞。這一發現,也給物理學遞上了一道新謎題——穿透性射線,它徑直通向了放射性,並最終通向核物理。1901 年,倫琴獲得了有史以來第一個諾貝爾物理學獎。他拒絕為這項發現申請專利,好讓全世界都能自由地使用它。

一個可以想像的畫面

想像你用手電筒照向一塊磨砂玻璃屏,手擋在中間。一條薄圍巾幾乎不會讓光變暗;一本厚書卻會把光完全遮沒。X 射線做的是同一件事,只是它針對的,是你的眼睛分辨不出的材料:血肉是那條薄圍巾,骨頭是那本厚書。於是在你手後的螢幕上,你會看見一團蒼白模糊的皮肉,裡面套著一副暗色而銳利的骨架——這道陰影,不是光畫出來的,而是密度畫出來的。

一台可互動的 X 射線工作台:左側是 X 射線管,中間是一隻手,右側是螢光屏。拖動滑桿改變管電壓,看骨骼那道暗影在血肉那道更淡的陰影中浮現;再拖另一個滑桿移動螢幕,看輝光如何隨距離變暗。

它的位置

倫琴的射線,開啟了關於不可見輻射的十年發現:1896 年,亨利·貝克勒爾發現鈾能自顧自地讓照相底片感光,而瑪麗與皮埃爾·居禮把這道輝光追溯到了放射性。至於 X 射線本身,要到馬克斯·馮·勞厄與布拉格父子(1912–1913)證明它是短波長的光——和馬克士威一代人之前所統一的,同屬一個電磁大家族——人們才真正理解了它。而正是一張 X 光照片——羅莎琳·富蘭克林的「51 號照片」——在幾十年後幫助揭示了 DNA 的形狀。今天每一次 CT 掃描、每一台機場掃描儀,都是維爾茨堡那塊發光螢幕的曾孫。

The original document
Original source text

發光的螢幕

W. C. Röntgen · On a New Kind of Rays · 1895 · trans. A. Stanton, Nature 53 (1896)
A discharge from a large induction coil is passed through a Hittorf's vacuum tube, or through a well-exhausted Crookes' or Lenard's tube. The tube is surrounded by a fairly close-fitting shield of black paper; it is then possible to see, in a completely darkened room, that paper covered on one side with barium platinocyanide lights up with brilliant fluorescence when brought into the neighbourhood of the tube, whether the painted side or the other be turned towards the tube.
The fluorescence is still visible at two metres distance. It is easy to show that the origin of the fluorescence lies within the vacuum tube.

物質如何讓射線穿過

It is readily shown that all bodies possess this same transparency, but in very varying degrees. For example, paper is very transparent; the fluorescent screen will light up when placed behind a book of a thousand pages; printer's ink offers no marked resistance.
[ … ]
A piece of sheet aluminium, 15 mm. thick, still allowed the X-rays (as I will call the rays, for the sake of brevity) to pass, but greatly reduced the fluorescence. Glass plates of similar thickness behave similarly; lead glass is, however, much more opaque than glass free from lead. Ebonite several centimetres thick is transparent. If the hand be held before the fluorescent screen, the shadow shows the bones clearly with only faint outlines of the surrounding tissues.

為射線命名

… the X-rays (as I will call the rays, for the sake of brevity) …
Of special interest in this connection is the fact that photographic dry plates are sensitive to the X-rays. It is thus possible to exhibit the phenomena so as to exclude the danger of error.

射線究竟是什麼

A kind of relationship between the new rays and light rays appears to exist; at least the formation of shadows, fluorescence, and the production of chemical action point in this direction. … Should not the new rays be ascribed to longitudinal waves in the ether? I must confess that I have in the course of this research made myself more and more familiar with this thought, and venture to put the opinion forward, while I am quite conscious that the hypothesis advanced still requires a more solid foundation.
Würzburg Physical and Medical Society · 1895