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經濟學 1817

政治經濟學及賦稅原理

大衛·李嘉圖

即便一國樣樣都造得更省,兩國仍能因貿易而雙雙獲益——各自專攻自己「放棄得最少」的那樣。

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In depth · the introduction

葡萄牙造布、釀酒所需的工人,都比英國少——那究竟圖什麼,要讓葡萄牙去買英國的布?李嘉圖那個出人意料的答案,開啟了現代支持貿易的整套論證。

核心想法

我們都明白:你擅長一件事、我擅長另一件,那就各做各擅長的,再交換。李嘉圖發現的,要奇特、也要有力得多:即便一個國家樣樣都造得更好,兩國仍能靠專業化與貿易雙雙獲益。

訣竅在於:別再問「誰用的勞動更少?」,而要問「每個國家為造這樣東西,放棄了什麼?」葡萄牙釀酒釀得出神入化——出神入化到,它每釀一桶酒,只放棄了很少一點布。英國兩樣都笨手笨腳,但在布上沒那麼笨。於是葡萄牙該把力氣傾注在酒上,英國傾注在布上,再彼此交換。最後兩國手裡的酒和布,都比各自閉門自產時更多。

它是如何誕生的

大衛·李嘉圖是個白手起家的證券經紀人,在倫敦交易所賺下一大筆財富——其中一部分來自滑鐵盧戰役前後的政府公債——退休時已富到能為自己買進議會的席位。經濟學是他的摯愛;據說,這份熱情源於一次度假時隨手拿起的亞當·斯密《國富論》。斯密力倡自由貿易,但他的論據建立在絕對優勢之上,留著一個漏洞:那麼,一個樣樣都更在行的國家,又當如何?

在 1817 年的《政治經濟學及賦稅原理》裡,李嘉圖用一章短短的「論對外貿易」,靠四個關於英國、葡萄牙、布與酒的小數字,把這個漏洞補上了。例子乾淨利落,以至於一講就是兩百年。它問世時,正值英國為《穀物法》爭得不可開交——那些關稅把外國穀物擋在門外,護著地主的利益——而此時已是議員的李嘉圖,便用他的經濟學,為更便宜的食物與更自由的貿易而辯。

它為何重要

比較優勢是經濟學裡難得一見、既真正出人意料、又幾乎被普遍接受的想法。正因為它,經濟學家才壓倒性地支持開放貿易;世界貿易組織一類的機構,也以它為根基。它解釋了:為什麼沒有哪個國家非得在某樣上「數一數二」,才能在世界經濟中佔有一席之地——它只需在某樣上「相對地」比自己做別的事更在行,而每個國家永遠都是如此。

李嘉圖對自己的假設很誠實,我們也該如此:他的論證悄悄依賴於資金留在本國、而非追逐海外更廉價的勞動;而且,他說的是國家「總體上」獲益——並非那些手藝被搶了生意的具體工人。這些保留,恰恰是今天關於全球化的種種爭吵所在之處。

一個可以想像的畫面

想像鎮上最好的外科醫生,同時也是鎮上打字最快的人。她該自己打字嗎?不該——她花在打字上的每一個鐘頭,都是沒能用在手術上的鐘頭,而在手術台前,她的價值要高得多。她在兩件事上都強過助手,可讓她去做手術、把打字留給助手,才更划算。那位助手在任何一樣上都沒有絕對優勢——卻照樣有用武之地,因為要緊的不是誰更強,而是各自放棄了什麼。國家,就是這位醫生和這位祕書。

一個英國與葡萄牙交換布與酒的可互動模型:一個滑桿把每個國家從「兩樣都自己造」推向「只專攻一樣」——英國織布、葡萄牙釀酒——世界的布與酒總產出便雙雙越過「不貿易」時的基準線,用的還是同樣多的工人。

它的位置

李嘉圖直接站在亞當·斯密(本館亦有收錄)的肩上:斯密揭示了專業化如何讓一家製針廠——乃至一個國家——的產出大增;李嘉圖則把專業化推向國境之外,證明它即便在實力懸殊的夥伴之間也照樣划算。在他之後,約翰·斯圖亞特·彌爾釐清了收益如何分配,而二十世紀的貿易理論家,又把優勢繫於各國所擁有的稟賦。這條線索,從斯密那隻看不見的手,穿過李嘉圖的兩個國家,一直延伸到那些組裝出你此刻所讀設備的全球供應鏈。

The original document
Original source text

序言——根本的難題

David Ricardo · On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation · 1817 · Preface
The produce of the earth — all that is derived from its surface by the united application of labour, machinery, and capital, is divided among three classes of the community; namely, the proprietor of the land, the owner of the stock or capital necessary for its cultivation, and the labourers by whose industry it is cultivated.
To determine the laws which regulate this distribution, is the principal problem in Political Economy.

論對外貿易——那四個數字

Chapter VII · On Foreign Trade
England may be so circumstanced, that to produce the cloth may require the labour of 100 men for one year; and if she attempted to make the wine, it might require the labour of 120 men for the same time. England would therefore find it her interest to import wine, and to purchase it by the exportation of cloth.
To produce the wine in Portugal, might require only the labour of 80 men for one year, and to produce the cloth in the same country, might require the labour of 90 men for the same time. It would therefore be advantageous for her to export wine in exchange for cloth. This exchange might even take place, notwithstanding that the commodity imported by Portugal could be produced there with less labour than in England.
Though she could make the cloth with the labour of 90 men, she would import it from a country where it required the labour of 100 men to produce it, because it would be advantageous to her rather to employ her capital in the production of wine, for which she would obtain more cloth from England, than she could produce by diverting a portion of her capital from the cultivation of vines to the manufacture of cloth.

萬國共成的社會

Chapter VII · On Foreign Trade
Under a system of perfectly free commerce, each country naturally devotes its capital and labour to such employments as are most beneficial to each. This pursuit of individual advantage is admirably connected with the universal good of the whole.
By stimulating industry, by rewarding ingenuity, and by using most efficaciously the peculiar powers bestowed by nature, it distributes labour most effectively and most economically: while, by increasing the general mass of productions, it diffuses general benefit, and binds together, by one common tie of interest and intercourse, the universal society of nations throughout the civilized world.