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地震學 1906

地震所揭示的地球內部構造

理查德·迪克森·奧爾德姆

為穿越行星的顫動計時,一個隱藏的地核便在其中心浮現。

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In depth · the introduction

世界這一頭的一場地震,會微弱地到達那一頭——而正是從「它遲到了多久」裡,奧爾德姆找到了一個藏在地球中心的核。

地球中心的一顆心

大地震一發生,就把波送進整顆行星,而不只是繞著它的表面跑。有兩種波穿過深部岩石:快速的「一推一拉」波,和較慢的「左右搖擺」波。到 1906 年,散布全球的地震儀正在它們漫長旅程之後捕到這些波,每一次到達都蓋著一個時刻。

理查德·奧爾德姆把這些時刻對著距離排開,察覺到不對勁。那些不得不穿過地球最深處的波,到得遲了——比「行星自表及心都是同一種東西」時它們該到的時刻更遲。最簡單的解釋是:中心有一個獨立的核,由更緻密的物質構成,波在其中走得更慢。地球有一顆隱藏的心,而你能從時刻裡把它聽出來。

從一場印度地震,到地球的中心

奧爾德姆是一位英裔愛爾蘭地質學家,曾在印度地質調查所工作多年。他的轉折點,是 1897 年那場災難性的阿薩姆大地震,他以前所未有的細緻記錄了它;從那些記錄裡,他學會了分辨不同波型各自的到達——這是他同代人多半不具備的本事。

回到英格蘭後,他從世界日漸擴張的臺網裡收集遠方地震的地震圖,做著耐心的記帳:哪一種波、多遠、多久。最大距離上那些遲到的到達,正是線索。他沒有把它們當作誤差打發掉,而是循著它們走向一個驚人的結論,並在 1906 年發表——這是頭一回,有人僅憑地震,便證明了地球有一個核。

它為何重要

沒有人能挖到地球的中心;最深的鑽孔,連地殼都只是剛剛劃出一個凹痕。奧爾德姆證明了我們不必去挖。地震的波,去到一切鑽頭去不了的地方,又用到達的時刻把消息帶回。他把整顆行星,變成了一件你可以從外部去檢視的東西——並找到了它最大的內部分界,地函與地核之間的邊界,而此後每一幅深部地球的圖像,都建立在它之上。

就像敲牆,去找牆後的樑

沿著牆敲一敲,聽:在灰泥背後藏著木樑的地方,聲音會變,於是你能憑「敲聲如何回來」去測繪你看不見的東西。奧爾德姆用地震敲地球,用地震儀去聽。在回來的敲聲遲到的地方,他便知道,那束波在深處穿過了某種不同的東西——再把這延遲,追溯到一個誰也永遠到不了的核。

一幅地球剖面:地函與一個中央地核,頂部是一處地震,旁邊是一張走時圖。滑桿把臺站繞地球移動,核取方塊可移除地核。一條直線射線畫向臺站;圖上虛線顯示無核地球的預測,實線顯示真實走時——一旦波徑穿過地核,實線便遲遲地爬升。

它落在何處

奧爾德姆開啟了一段「從顫動裡讀懂深部地球」的接力:他於 1906 年找到地核,安德里亞·莫霍洛維奇奇於 1909 年找到地殼—地函邊界,賓諾·古登堡量出地核有多深,哈羅德·傑弗里斯證明它的外層是液態,而英厄·萊曼——同樣在本館——在其中找到了一顆固態內核。它與本館裡其他學人讀懂行星的方式並立:赫頓、萊爾在岩石的緩慢時間裡,韋格納、赫斯在移動的海床裡。他們合力,把地球從一個不透明的球,變成了一具有著已知解剖結構的身體。

The original document
Original source text
Richard Dixon Oldham · The Constitution of the Interior of the Earth, as Revealed by Earthquakes · Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London 62 (1906): 456–475
The instrument: a worldwide clock of trembles
By 1906 a network of sensitive seismographs around the world recorded the same great earthquake at many distances. Oldham's raw material was the arrival times on those records, set against the angular (epicentral) distance from each shock — a global stopwatch on waves that had threaded the whole planet.
Three arrivals on every record
Oldham insisted on separating three distinct arrivals that earlier workers had blurred together: a first phase of fast compressional waves (today's P), a slower second phase of shear waves (today's S), and the still-slower large waves that run around the surface. Timing each phase apart was the key that let the interior speak.
The anomaly: waves that arrive too late
Plotted against distance, the first two phases followed a smooth curve out to roughly 120°. Beyond that, the waves whose paths plunged through the deepest interior arrived markedly later than a uniform planet would allow. Something near the centre was holding them back.
The conclusion: a central core
Oldham read the delay as the signature of a distinct central core — of materially different, lower wave-speed constitution than the rock above it — occupying roughly the inner two-fifths of the radius. The Earth was not uniform to its centre: it had a heart.
[ … ]
Oldham's core was real, but his measure of it was rough: the modern core–mantle boundary sits deeper, at 2891 km (core radius 3480 km, 0.55 R). His size estimate, his velocities, and his reliance on the second phase were all refined or corrected within decades — by Gutenberg (1913), Jeffreys (1926) and Lehmann (1936). The full memoir, tables and plates included, is at the source below.
Geological Society of London · 1906