JOVANA
Library Glossary Getting Started Three Levels Fields How it works Mission
Join the mission
Back to the library
物理學 1913

論基本電荷與亞佛加厥常數

羅伯特·密立根

他把帶電油滴懸在半空,證明電荷只能是一個微小單元 e 的整數倍。

Choose your version
In depth · the introduction

怎麼去稱量「一份電」——一份小到永遠看不見的電?密立根把它捉在了一粒懸浮於空氣中的油滴上。

核心想法

電荷不是你想要多少就有多少的。它以一顆顆一模一樣的「顆粒」出現——而每一顆,都是一個電子的電荷。密立根測出了一顆顆粒的大小。

他的妙招,是讓一滴小小的油滴懸停在兩塊金屬極板之間。重力把油滴往下拉;在極板之間通上電壓,又把帶電的油滴往上推。把電壓調到恰到好處,油滴便紋絲不動地懸著——而從「你需要多用力才能托住它」,就能算出它究竟帶了多少電荷。一滴接一滴地做下去,得到的電荷總是同一個小數字的 1 倍、2 倍、3 倍……那個數字,就是 e,一個電子的電荷。

它是如何誕生的

這項工作於 1909 至 1913 年間,在芝加哥大學完成。先前的實驗者曾試著觀察一團團帶電的水滴,可水還沒等人測完就蒸發了。密立根——與他的研究生哈維·弗萊徹緊密合作,而弗萊徹在這一突破中的功勞,長期未獲充分承認——改用普通香水噴霧器裡的油,油不會乾掉。

接下來便是耐心:透過望遠鏡,連續幾個鐘頭盯住一粒發亮的微塵,輕輕撥動電壓,把油滴每一次俘獲過路離子時的細小跳變都記下來。電荷總是以相等的台階變化。密立根 1913 年公布了他的 e 值,並於 1923 年獲諾貝爾獎。幾十年後,研究他筆記的史學家,也會就「他挑了哪些油滴發表」提出一個尖銳的問題。

它為何重要

這是「電由可數的單元構成」的直接證明,也是「一個單元到底有多大」的第一次真正精確的測量。與湯姆森早先發現的電子相結合,它定下了電子的質量。而透過數電荷,密立根也能數原子——他的 e 值給出了亞佛加厥常數,也就是日常一塊物質中那驚人數目的原子數。

一個可以想像的畫面

想像你只能稱量一袋袋密封的、一模一樣的硬幣,永遠不能單獨稱一枚。一袋重 3 克,一袋 5 克,一袋 8 克,一袋 11 克。你從不會見到一袋重 3.5 或 4.2 克。唯一說得通的解釋是:每一枚硬幣恰好重 1 克,而每袋只是裝了 3、5、8、11 枚。密立根的油滴就是那一袋袋硬幣;那些以相等台階變化的電荷告訴他:每一枚「硬幣」——每一個電子——都帶著同一個 e。

一滴帶電油滴在兩塊極板之間,有一個向下的重力箭頭和一個向上的電力箭頭。增減電子、滑動極板電壓,直到兩個力平衡、油滴靜止懸浮。

它的位置

1897 年,J. J. 湯姆森(thomson-1897)發現了電子,並測出它的荷質比,卻沒能單獨測出電荷本身。密立根補上了這個缺失的數字。兩者合在一起,便把一個電荷與質量都已知的粒子,交到了下一代人手裡——拉塞福(rutherford-1911)與波耳(bohr-1913)正是用它來搭建原子。他的油滴所揭示的「電荷的顆粒性」,如今已織入整個物理學,而他的 e,正是現代單位制賴以建立的常數之一。

The original document
Original source text
R. A. Millikan · Physical Review, Series II, 2 (1913): 109–143 · Ryerson Physical Laboratory, University of Chicago
§ The question
[Annotation] Is electric charge built from indivisible grains — exact multiples of one elementary unit — or can a body carry any amount at all? J. J. Thomson had measured the electron's charge-to-mass ratio in 1897, but the charge itself was known only roughly, and Felix Ehrenhaft was claiming to see fractional "sub-electrons." Millikan set out to measure the charge directly, on the smallest objects he could isolate.
§ The oil-drop method
[Annotation] A fine mist of oil is blown from an atomizer into a chamber above a pair of horizontal brass plates. Friction in the nozzle (and X-rays passing through the air) leaves each tiny drop with a few excess or missing electrons. A single drop is watched through a short telescope: with the field off it falls under gravity at a steady terminal speed; with the field switched on it can be driven back up, or held perfectly still. From the fall speed Millikan gets the drop's radius; from the balance of forces he gets its charge.
§ The correction of Stokes's law
[Annotation] His drops are only about a micron across — comparable to the average distance an air molecule travels between collisions — so the smooth-fluid drag law of Stokes slightly overestimates the resistance. Millikan's earlier (1911) paper, "The Isolation of an Ion, a Precision Measurement of its Charge, and the Correction of Stokes's Law," introduced the slip correction that made the result precise. This refinement, more than the apparatus, is what carried the measurement to a fraction of a percent.
§ The result
[Annotation] Whenever a drop suddenly caught or lost an ion, its charge changed by a jump — and every jump, and every total, was an exact whole-number multiple of one unit. Millikan's figure for that unit was e ≈ 4.774 × 10⁻¹⁰ electrostatic units, i.e. about 1.59 × 10⁻¹⁹ coulombs — within roughly a percent of today's value. Dividing the Faraday constant of electrolysis by e then gives the number of atoms in a mole, the Avogadro constant.
[ … ]
Ryerson Physical Laboratory, University of Chicago · 1913