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物理學 1887

論地球與光以太的相對運動

阿爾伯特·邁克生 與 愛德華·莫雷

他們去尋找以太之風——卻以極高的精度,發現:什麼都沒有。

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In depth · the introduction

一個世紀裡,物理學家都篤信:光需要一片看不見的海洋才能傳播。兩位美國人造出了有史以來最精細的尺子,去感受那片海洋的水流——卻什麼也沒感受到。

核心想法

在十九世紀,人人都同意光是一種波。可波,總要在某種東西裡起伏:聲波在空氣裡,海浪在水裡。那麼光也該在某種東西裡起伏——一種填滿整個空間的透明物質,名叫光以太。倘若它真的存在,那麼以約每秒 30 公里繞太陽飛奔的地球,就該感到一陣「以太風」從身旁掠過——正如你把手伸出行駛的車窗,會感到空氣呼呼地衝過來。

邁克生與莫雷,正是要去感受這陣風。他們把一束光分成兩半,讓兩半各自沿著兩條成直角的臂行進,撞上鏡子彈回,再重新合到一起。倘若以太風加快了一束、又減慢了另一束,那麼合起來的光就會顯出一種洩露天機的條紋圖樣——而旋轉整台機器,會讓條紋移動。他們造出的儀器,靈敏到能捕捉比預期弱二十倍的風。可條紋,從未移動。

它是如何誕生的

阿爾伯特·邁克生痴迷於測量光。1881 年,他在德國造出干涉儀的第一個版本,得到一個令人困惑的、近乎零的結果——但他的計算裡有個錯誤,而那次測試也還不夠靈敏,難以確鑿。回到克利夫蘭,他與化學家愛德華·莫雷聯手,把這場實驗以巨大的規模重新搭建起來。

他們的傑作,與其說是物理,不如說同樣是一項工程。為了扼殺顫動,他們把光學元件裝在一塊砂岩石板上,再讓石板浮在一池液態水銀上——於是這張沉重的工作台,能像唱機轉盤上的唱片一樣平穩地旋轉,每六分鐘緩緩轉一圈。他們一小時又一小時地盯著條紋,一個季節又一個季節地謀劃。一次又一次:什麼都沒有。物理學中最被期待的那陣風,根本就沒在吹。

它為何重要

一個著名的「沒有」,有時比一項發現更有力量。以太曾是物理學最根本的預設,而這場實驗表明:根本探測不到什麼以太風——這意味著,「光在一片固定而看不見的介質中行進」這幅令人安心的圖景,有什麼地方大錯特錯了。

人們花了將近二十年才消化它。這道謎題,幫著把一個激進的想法逼到了台前:光速對每個人都一樣,無論他如何運動;而空間與時間本身,必須為了維持這一點而彎折。這個想法,就是愛因斯坦的狹義相對論;而邁克生–莫雷的「零結果」,正是最常被援引為它掃清道路的那場實驗。

一個可以想像的畫面

想像河裡有兩名一模一樣的游泳者,各自來回游同樣的距離。一個筆直地橫渡水流再游回來;另一個先逆流而上、再順流而下。即便游速相同,水流耽擱他們的程度也不一樣——那位逆流又順流的,總要多花些時間。所以,倘若真有一股以太「水流」從地球身旁淌過,兩束光返回時就該略微錯開節拍,你會在條紋裡看見它。邁克生與莫雷把這場比賽一遍遍地重賽,把「泳池」朝各個方向旋轉——可兩名游泳者總是打平。根本沒有水流。

一台漂浮在水銀上的邁克生干涉儀示意圖:光源、分束鏡、兩條互相垂直且帶端鏡的臂,以及一塊條紋屏。把假定的以太風從零滑到地球公轉速度;隨著工作台旋轉,條紋按經典理論的預言移動——但當風速為零,它們紋絲不動。

它的位置

這場實驗,正坐落在物理學史的一處轉軸上。在它身後,是菲涅耳與馬克士威所構築的偉大的光的波動說,那似乎要求一種以太;在它身前,是愛因斯坦 1905 年的相對論,把以太扔了出去、讓光速成為絕對。邁克生的干涉儀本身則從未退休:縮小到實驗室裡,它成了一件精密工具;放大到四公里長的臂,它成了 LIGO——那台在 2015 年捕捉到重力波的儀器,傾聽著一種遠比他們當年沒能找到的以太風更微弱的、空間的漣漪。

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Original source text

以太假說

A. A. Michelson & E. W. Morley · American Journal of Science · 1887 · §1
The discovery of the aberration of light was soon followed by an explanation according to the emission theory. The effect was attributed to a simple composition of the velocity of light with the velocity of the earth in its orbit.
On the undulatory theory, according to Fresnel, first, the ether is supposed to be at rest except in the interior of transparent media, in which secondly, it is supposed to move with a velocity less than the velocity of the medium in the ratio (n² − 1)/n², where n is the index of refraction.
[ … ]
If the earth were a transparent body, it might perhaps be conceded, in view of the experiments just cited, that the intermolecular ether was at rest in space, notwithstanding the motion of the earth in its orbit; but we have no right to extend the conclusion from these experiments to opaque bodies.

漂浮在水銀上的儀器

§ The interferometer, floated to turn freely and continuously
The stone is about 1.5 meter square and 0.3 meter thick. It rests on an annular wooden float, 1.5 meter outside diameter, 0.7 meter inside diameter, and 0.25 meter thick. The float rests on mercury contained in the cast-iron trough.
The apparatus was revolved very slowly (one turn in six minutes) and observations of the fringes were made continually as the stone turned. By this means an accumulation of errors was avoided, and the displacement, if any, could be detected at once.
The distance D was about eleven meters, or 2×10⁷ wave-lengths of yellow light; hence the displacement to be expected was 0.4 fringe.

那個「零結果」

§ Comparing the observed shift with the shift predicted by a stationary ether
The actual displacement was certainly less than the twentieth part of this, and probably less than the fortieth part.
Considering the motion of the earth in its orbit only, this displacement should be 2D × v²/V² = 2D × 10⁻⁸. The distance D was about eleven meters; hence the displacement to be expected was 0.4 fringe — and yet it could not be found.
It appears, from all that precedes, reasonably certain that if there be any relative motion between the earth and the luminiferous ether, it must be small; quite small enough entirely to refute Fresnel's explanation of aberration.
The experiment will therefore be repeated at intervals of three months, and thus all uncertainty will be avoided.
Albert A. Michelson & Edward W. Morley · Cleveland, Ohio · 1887