JOVANA
Library Glossary Getting Started Three Levels Fields How it works Mission
Join the mission
Back to the library
化學 1916

原子與分子

吉爾伯特·N·路易斯

化學鍵,就是兩個原子共同持有的一對電子。

Choose your version
In depth · the introduction

如果兩個原子都想要一層填滿的外殼,卻不是靠彼此搶奪電子,而是靠共享一對電子,各自如願呢?

核心想法

原子對自己最外層的電子,比對任何別的東西都更挑剔。到 1916 年,化學家已經知道,許多原子在外層有八個電子時最為安穩——這就是「八隅」——而舊的解釋是:一個原子把電子交給另一個,兩邊便都湊成整齊的外殼。這對食鹽是行得通的,鈉把一個電子給了氯。可它解釋不了化學的大半江山:氣體、油脂、生命賴以構成的碳化合物——在那裡,沒有哪個原子肯把電子白白送人。

吉爾伯特·路易斯給出了一個更好的主意。兩個原子可以各自湊足八個,辦法是共享一對同時屬於雙方的電子。這對共享的電子,就是化學鍵。共享一對,是單鍵;共享兩對、三對,便是雙鍵、三鍵。為了記帳,路易斯把每個外層電子畫成原子符號周圍的一個點——這些點式的畫法,至今仍在每一堂化學課上教著。

它是如何誕生的

路易斯把這個想法追溯到他 1902 年畫的一張教學草圖:把原子看成一個小立方體,八個角上各可以有一個電子——填滿的外殼,就是填滿的立方體。他把這想法擱了許多年。1916 年終於發表時,他並不孤單:德國的瓦爾特·科塞爾同年釐清了電子轉移那一面的故事;而路易斯的八隅之規,又承接自更早的理查德·阿貝格。

隨後,歐文·朗繆爾——一位才華橫溢、不知疲倦的演說家——接過了路易斯的方案,給「八隅(octet)」命了名,並如此有力地把它帶遍化學世界,以至於人們開始把它稱作朗繆爾理論——這刺痛了最先想到它的路易斯。而儘管影響如此之大,路易斯被提名諾貝爾獎數十次,卻始終未能獲獎,這是諾獎史上最著名的疏漏之一。

它為何重要

共享對把一堆無從解釋的事實,變成了一條清晰的規則,也給了化學家一種方法:把任何分子畫出來,並預測它會如何行事。一個化學學生學著在紙上做的幾乎一切——推斷分子的形狀、用箭頭推著電子對去追蹤一個反應、判斷一個結構是否合理——都直接源自路易斯的那些點。很難找到比它更深地織進化學日常的想法了。

一個可以想像的畫面

想像兩個人,各自都需要一副完整的手套,可每人只有相配一雙中的一隻。誰都不肯把手套送人。於是他們約定,共同握著一雙手套——這一雙,對兩人都算「完整」。這雙共握的手套,就是鍵。要是還嫌冷,他們可以再共握第二、第三雙。而正如一隻手戴不下超過一定數目的手套,一個小原子也容不下超過八個外層電子——硬要塞更多,這個排布根本就不會形成。

可互動的路易斯結構搭建器:選擇 H₂、F₂、O₂ 或 N₂;滑桿設定兩個相同原子之間共享的電子對數。元件畫出路易斯結構——元素符號、孤對電子點與共享電子對點——以及兩個外層電子計量條,由孤對電子與成鍵電子一起填向八(氫為二)。當電子數恰為八隅時計量條變綠,超過八時顯示紅色溢出。

它的位置

路易斯出現的時刻,恰在週期表(mendeleev-1869)已把元素分門別類之後,又正當物理學家在把原子拆開——湯姆森的電子、拉塞福的原子核、波耳的殼層。他用了他們的電子,卻仍帶著化學家的眼光,問的不是原子是什麼,而是它如何成鍵。更深的「為什麼」——是什麼讓一對共享電子黏得住——則隨後到來,當量子力學經鮑林之手抵達化學(pauling-1931)。路易斯的點,正是週期表通向量子化學鍵的那座橋。

The original document
Original source text
G. N. Lewis · Journal of the American Chemical Society 38 (1916) 762–785 · communicated from the University of California
One picture for every bond
Lewis opens by rejecting the assumption that atoms in a molecule are always held together by the outright transfer of electrons from one to another. Transfer accounts for the salts — the strongly polar compounds — but not for the vast class of non-polar substances, nor for the fact that most stable molecules contain an even number of electrons. He sets out to cover both kinds of compound with a single model of the atom.
He states his account as a short series of postulates, paraphrased here: every atom has an inner kernel (the nucleus plus the inner electrons) that survives ordinary chemical change; around it sits an outer shell that can hold from zero to eight electrons; the shell tends to hold an even number, and especially eight, normally arranged at the eight corners of a cube; and two atoms can complete their shells at once by sharing electrons that belong to both.
…the total difference between the maximum negative and positive valences or polar numbers of an element is frequently eight, and is in no case more than eight.
From this regularity — drawn from Abegg's earlier rule — Lewis builds the theory of the cubical atom: eight valence electrons sit at the corners of a cube, and two atoms that share an edge share the two electrons on it. A shared edge is a single bond; the shared pair counts toward the octet of both atoms at once.
The decisive proposal is that a chemical bond is a pair of electrons held jointly by two atoms. Sharing — not transfer — is the ordinary non-polar bond, and one, two or three shared pairs give the single, double and triple bonds of organic chemistry. To record it on paper, Lewis marks each valence electron as a dot around the symbol of its element: the dot diagrams still in use today.
[ … ]
Lewis notes that the pairing of electrons — what later authors called the rule of two — may run deeper than the rule of eight itself; he could not say why electrons pair, a question answered only by quantum mechanics a decade later. The paper closes by applying the scheme to a range of molecules, polar and non-polar alike.
G. N. Lewis · University of California, Berkeley · 1916