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數學 1843

論與四元數理論相關的一類新的虛量

威廉·羅恩·哈密頓

添上第四個維度,空間中的方向便能相乘——也能被轉動。

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In depth · the introduction

十九世紀一次沿都柏林運河的散步,與你的手機「知道自己朝哪個方向」,能有什麼關係?關係大著呢。

可以轉動的數

普通的數住在一條線上。複數住在一張平面上,而乘上一個複數,能讓一個點旋轉起來——這讓它們在紙面上描述「旋轉」時再合適不過。哈密頓想把同樣的魔法搬進三維空間,好讓東西能在立體中被轉動。卡了許多年之後,他意識到:這個戲法需要第四個維度,外加一樁奇怪的犧牲——在他的新數裡,a × b 不再等於 b × a。次序,舉足輕重——正如你轉動一個物體時那樣:先向左、再向上,跟先向上、再向左,落點並不相同。

橋上的那道公式

到 1843 年,愛爾蘭首屈一指的數學家威廉·羅恩·哈密頓,已為「如何相乘三元數組」苦苦纏鬥多年。10 月 16 日,他與妻子沿皇家運河走向愛爾蘭皇家學會的一場會議,答案在一瞬間擊中了他——他後來對兒子說,那一刻「一顆火花迸射而出」。生怕忘記,他掏出小刀,把那道關鍵的公式刻在了經過的布魯姆橋的石頭上:i² = j² = k² = ijk = −1。刻痕早已磨滅,但一塊銘牌標出了那個地點,數學家們至今每年都要去那裡走一趟「哈密頓之路」。

它為何重要

哈密頓做了一件誰都以為不被允許的事:他造出了一個完整、合理的數系,在其中,乘法的次序會改變答案。這一道「許可」,打開了現代代數——它告訴數學家們:你們可以自由地發明帶著新規則的新系統,只要那些規則自洽。而他那些「四個數」的對象——四元數——後來被證明是描述並複合空間旋轉的、有史以來最乾淨的辦法;這個用途,要到一個世紀之後才變得不可或缺。

翻動一本書

把一本書平放。先繞一根豎直的軸轉 90°,再繞一根水平的軸轉 90°,記下封面朝向哪裡。現在從頭來過,把這兩次轉動的次序調換——書的朝向會落在一個完全不同的地方。旋轉不可交換:次序會改變結果。四元數,就是行為與此一模一樣的數——這正是它們能替旋轉代言的原因。把四元數按一個次序相乘,得到一個最終朝向;調換次序,得到另一個。

一幅可互動的三維圖,畫著三根帶標記的箭頭。滑桿選定一個轉動角與一根轉軸,箭頭便隨之轉動,由你的選擇所造出的四元數來驅動。

它在知識譜系中的位置

哈密頓的四元數,是高斯等人讓其登堂入室的複數的續篇——一個維度變成了四個;也是許多現代數學的前傳:填滿本館後續篇章的矩陣、向量與群論,有一部分正是從它生長出來的。物理學家所畫的向量箭頭、所用的內積與外積,是一代人之後從哈密頓的代數裡鑿出來的。在陰影中沉寂了一個世紀後,四元數隨著電腦轟然歸來——後者恰恰需要它那份「擅長旋轉」的天賦。

The original document
Original source text
W. R. Hamilton · 'On a new Species of Imaginary Quantities connected with a theory of Quaternions' · Proc. Royal Irish Academy 2: 424–434 · communicated 13 November 1843
The fundamental formula
For over a decade Hamilton sought a way to multiply and divide triples of numbers, as complex numbers multiply pairs in the plane. The breakthrough required giving up two things at once: adding a fourth component, and abandoning the commutative law. On 16 October 1843, walking along the Royal Canal in Dublin, the relation came to him, and he cut it into the stone of Brougham Bridge with his pocketknife:
i² = j² = k² = ijk = −1
From this single relation the whole multiplication table follows, and the three imaginary units anticommute:
ij = k, jk = i, ki = j; ji = −k, kj = −i, ik = −j.
[ … ]
Hamilton's own account (letter to his son Archibald, 1865)
An electric circuit seemed to close; and a spark flashed forth, the herald (as I foresaw immediately) of many long years to come of definitely directed thought and work…
Nor could I resist the impulse — unphilosophical as it may have been — to cut with a knife on a stone of Brougham Bridge, as we passed it, the fundamental formula with the symbols, i, j, k; namely, i² = j² = k² = ijk = −1, which contains the Solution of the Problem, but of course, as an inscription, has long since mouldered away.
[ … ]
What a quaternion is
A quaternion is a number with one real and three imaginary parts, q = a + bi + cj + dk. Hamilton named a the 'scalar' part and bi + cj + dk the 'vector' part — coining both words. A unit quaternion encodes a rotation in space: conjugating a vector v by it, v ↦ q v q⁻¹, turns v through that rotation.
Royal Irish Academy, Dublin · 13 November 1843