JOVANA
Library Glossary Getting Started Three Levels Fields How it works Mission
Join the mission
Back to the library
化學 1876

論非均相物質的平衡

約西亞·威拉德·吉布斯

讓自由能取極小,便能預言每一種相、混合與化學平衡。

Choose your version
In depth · the introduction

水為何在一個固定的溫度結冰?糖為何只能溶到某個限度?電池又為何不多不少推出那麼多伏特?吉布斯找到了藏在這一切背後的同一條記帳規則。

核心想法

每一種化學情形——冰在融化、糖在溶解、鐵在生鏽——都在朝著某個平衡漂移。吉布斯指出,有一個量,今天叫作自由能,系統總會把它降到不能再低;當它再也沉不下去時,系統便達到了平衡,不再變化。

從這一個想法裡,他抽出了一條簡單得驚人的計數法則——相律。對一種純物質,你還能自由改變的條件數目——溫度、壓強——等於成分的數目,減去當前存在的相數,再加二。它在你做任何實驗之前,就告訴你一份混合物有多少自由。

它是如何誕生的

約西亞·威拉德·吉布斯是耶魯一位言語溫和的教授,幾乎從不離開紐黑文。1875 到 1878 年間,他在一份少有人讀的康乃狄克學報上,發表了一篇三百頁的論著,用的是冷峻而難啃的數學。幾乎沒有人讀它。

英國的馬克士威,是極少數看出其深度的人之一。他用石膏雕出吉布斯的「熱力學曲面」,把模型越過大西洋寄到了耶魯。這部作品一直被埋沒,直到被譯成德文(1892)與法文(1899)——化學家們這才意識到,一位沉默的美國人,早已寫下了他們這門學科的根基。

它為何重要

在吉布斯之前,化學在很大程度上是配方與經驗法則。他把它變成了一門可預測的科學:給定溫度、壓強與用量,你如今便能算出一個反應往哪個方向走、能走多遠、哪些相能共處一處——而不必無盡地試錯。煉鋼、生長半導體、配製藥物,以及岩石的化學,全都跑在他的方程之上。

一個可以想像的畫面

想像一片起伏的丘陵與谷地,化學系統每一個可能的狀態,都是地形上的一個點,而「高度」就是它的自由能。無人打擾時,系統便順坡下滾,落進它夠得著的最低谷底——這就是平衡。改變溫度或壓強,你就讓整片地形傾斜,於是最低的谷底也隨之移動:0 °C 以下,冰的谷勝出;0 °C 以上,則是液態水的谷。吉布斯交給我們的,是這張地圖,以及它如何傾斜的規則。

可互動的水壓強—溫度相圖:選擇固、液、氣某一區域,或熔化/沸騰/昇華某條線,或三相點,看共存幾個相、還剩多少自由度 F = C − P + 2。

它的位置

卡諾(1824)與克勞修斯,曾為熱機建起熱力學;吉布斯則把它帶進了化學。他與波茲曼(1877)並肩而立——後者恰在同一時期,為熵賦予分子的含義;數十年後,吉布斯本人又寫下了把這兩股線索熔為一體的統計力學教科書。他所定義的那個自由能,正是每個化學學生如今都會以「ΔG」之名遇見的那個 G。

The original document
Original source text
J. Willard Gibbs · Transactions of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences, vol. III (1875–78): 108–248, 343–524
Die Energie der Welt ist constant. Die Entropie der Welt strebt einem Maximum zu.
The two sentences from Clausius that Gibbs set as the motto at the head of the memoir: “The energy of the world is constant. The entropy of the world tends toward a maximum.” The whole work is an answer to the question they pose — what configuration does matter settle into when its entropy can rise no further.
The criterion of equilibrium
Gibbs takes the two laws of thermodynamics as his only premises. For an isolated system he states the condition for equilibrium: among all variations that conserve the energy, the entropy is a maximum (equivalently, at fixed temperature and pressure the appropriate free energy is a minimum). Every later result is squeezed out of this single principle.
The fundamental equation and the potentials
He writes the energy of a homogeneous mass as a function of its entropy, volume and the masses of its independent components, and introduces for each component a quantity he calls its potential — what is now the chemical potential. Two phases in contact are in equilibrium only when their temperature, their pressure and the potential of every component are equal.
On coexistent phases
In this part Gibbs gives the modern thermodynamic meaning of the word phase, and by counting the equalities that must hold among r coexistent phases of n components he obtains the rule for the number of their independent variations — the phase rule, F = C − P + 2.
[ … ]
The memoir runs on to dilute solutions and osmotic pressure, the conditions of chemical reaction, electrochemical equilibrium, and the thermodynamics of surfaces and adsorption — a single framework for equilibria across phases, mixtures, reactions and interfaces.
New Haven, Connecticut · 1875–1878