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物理學 1831

電學實驗研究(第一輯)

麥可·法拉第

讓磁鐵從線圈旁掠過,電就流了起來——變化本身,就是電流的源頭。

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In depth · the introduction

十年裡,法拉第只追著一個問題——既然電能生磁,那磁能不能生電?——而 1831 年,他發現,訣竅在於運動。

核心想法

到 1820 年,人們已經知道電流能產生磁場:導線裡的電流會讓旁邊的指南針偏轉。法拉第確信反過來也必定成立——磁應該能產生電流——他為此試了好幾年。答案揭曉時,卻帶著一個轉折:一塊靜靜待在線圈旁的磁鐵,什麼也不會發生。只有在磁鐵「移動」、或磁性「變化」的時候,電流才會出現。

他用兩種辦法證明了它。先是一只帶著兩組獨立線圈的鐵環:把其中一組線圈的電流開或關,另一組線圈上的電流計就會一跳——但只在開關的那一刻。然後乾脆不用電池:把一根條形磁鐵推進線圈,指針偏向一邊,抽出來,偏向另一邊。變化,就是全部的秘密。

它是如何誕生的

法拉第幾乎沒受過正規教育。他是鐵匠的兒子,做過裝訂學徒,在他縫訂的那些書裡讀到了科學,又靠口才謀得了一份差事——給皇家研究院的化學家漢弗里·戴維當助手——最終成了那個時代最偉大的實驗家。1821 年,他造出了第一台電動機,讓一根導線繞著磁鐵不停地轉。而反過來——從磁裡造出電——又花了他十年。

突破來自 1831 年 8 月 29 日的那只鐵環;整個秋天,他一個接一個地做實驗,把磁鐵插進線圈,讓銅盤在磁極之間旋轉以引出穩定的電流。那年 11 月,他把這項工作在皇家學會宣讀。在大西洋彼岸,美國人約瑟夫·亨利獨立地看見了幾乎相同的效應——但法拉第先發表,並弄清了它的含義。

它為何重要

法拉第找到了把運動變成電的辦法。今天的每一座電站,都是一台專做這件事的機器——讓磁鐵掠過線圈旋轉,無論推動旋轉的是落水、是風、是蒸汽,還是核反應堆的爐心。他的那只鐵環,化作了把電力送往整個國家的變壓器。沒有這一項發現,就不會有電網,這個用電線連起來的世界,根本無從存在。

一個可以想像的畫面

想想推鞦韆。把鞦韆停在任何高度都沒用;起作用的是「運動」,而你推得越快,效果越大。線圈旁的磁鐵也是一樣:把它停在那兒,哪怕就停在線圈正中,也不會有一絲電流。讓它掃過,電流便湧出——掃得越快,電流越強。起作用的,永遠是變化,而不是位置。

一幅可互動的法拉第感應實驗示意圖。一根條形磁鐵(紅色為北極,藍色為南極)位於一只銅線圈的軸線上,線圈向下接到一只電流計的表盤。一個滑桿設定磁鐵相對線圈中心的位置,另一個設定它的速度,一支箭頭顯示運動的方向與大小。指針隨被感應出的電流成比例擺動,有電流時引線會亮起:磁鐵靜止時指針停在零,全速穿過正中央時也停在零——因為那裡磁鐵對線圈的拉力最強、因而沒有在變化。

它在知識譜系中的位置

法拉第的發現,是整個電磁故事的樞紐。漢斯·克里斯蒂安·厄斯特(1820)曾表明電流能生磁,安德烈-馬里·安培又把它定量化;法拉第補上了那缺失的反向——「變化的」磁能生電。他把磁體周圍的空間想像成布滿了「力線」——一個物理的場——而非超距作用。

那幅圖景,是法拉第最深遠的遺產。一代人之後,詹姆斯·克拉克·馬克士威取來這些力線,把它們寫成了方程(他 1865 年的論文也在本館中),把法拉第的電磁感應納入四條定律,揭示出光本身就是一種電磁波。這位自學成才的裝訂工,提供了物理的洞見;馬克士威,提供了數學。

The original document
Original source text

論電流的感應

Michael Faraday · Experimental Researches in Electricity, First Series · Phil. Trans. R. Soc. 122 (1832): 125–162 · read 24 November 1831
§1 · The plan
The power which electricity of tension possesses of causing an opposite electrical state in its vicinity has been expressed by the general term Induction; which, as it has been received into scientific language, may also, with propriety, be used in the same general sense to express the power which electrical currents may possess of inducing any particular state upon matter in their immediate neighbourhood, otherwise indifferent.
§6 · The first experiment
Two hundred and three feet of copper wire in one length were coiled round a large block of wood; other two hundred and three feet of similar wire were interposed as a spiral between the turns of the first coil, and metallic contact everywhere prevented by twine.
When the contact was made, there was a sudden and very slight effect at the galvanometer, and there was also a similar slight effect when the contact with the battery was broken. But whilst the voltaic current was continuing to pass through the one helix, no galvanometrical appearances nor any effect like induction upon the other helix could be perceived, although the active power of the battery was proved to be great.
[ … ]

由磁生電

First Series · the iron ring (§§27–31) and the moving magnet (§39)
Upon using the power of one hundred pairs of plates (10.) with this ring, the impulse at the galvanometer, when contact was completed or broken, was so great as to make the needle spin round rapidly four or five times, before the air and terrestrial magnetism could reduce its motion to mere oscillation.
[ … ]
One end of this magnet was introduced into the axis of the helix, and then, the galvanometer-needle being stationary, the magnet was suddenly thrust in; immediately the needle was deflected … being left in, the needle resumed its first position, and then the magnet being withdrawn, the needle was deflected in the opposite direction.
Royal Institution, London · read 24 November 1831