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數學 1736

關於位置幾何之一問題的解答

萊昂哈德·歐拉

能否一次走遍柯尼斯堡的七座橋、每座恰好一次?歐拉的「不能」開創了圖論。

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In depth · the introduction

七座橋,一座城,一個簡單的挑戰:把每座橋都恰好走一次。那位證明「辦不到」的人,悄然發明了一整門新的數學。

核心想法

古老的普魯士城市柯尼斯堡,坐落在一條河的兩岸、又環抱著河中的一座島,全由七座橋縫合在一起。當地流行的週日挑戰,是穿城走一圈、把每座橋都走一次、且只走一次——任何一座都不許重複。沒人走得通,卻也沒人說得清為什麼。

萊昂哈德·歐拉——他那個時代最高產的數學家——意識到街道的佈局根本無關緊要。要緊的只有一件事:每塊陸地連著多少座橋。他證明:要讓這趟散步可行,幾乎每一塊陸地都得連著偶數座橋——而柯尼斯堡的每一塊,連的都是奇數座。於是散步不可能辦到,而他無需離開書桌,就能把它證明出來。

它是如何誕生的

這道謎題大約在 1735 年傳到歐拉手中,當時他正在聖彼得堡科學院。起初他覺得它配不上嚴肅的數學——是個謎語,而非定理。但解它,逼著他發明出一種思考方式:用他的話說,是位置要緊、而距離不要緊的問題——一門萊布尼茲命過名、卻無人發展過的「位置幾何」。

歐拉沒有去試那成千上萬條可能的路線,而是找到一條計數規則,一舉判定了問題,並意識到:無論哪座城、有多少座橋,它都同樣管用。他在 1735 年把它呈給科學院;論文於 1741 年印行。數學家們如今把圖論的誕生,定在這篇論文。

它為何重要

歐拉表明:你可以把某件事「不可能」乾淨、確定地證明出來;而這證明,能丟開一個問題幾乎所有具體的東西,只留下它連接的圖樣。這一手——拋掉距離與形狀、去研究純粹的結構——一下子開啟了兩門學科:圖論,網路的數學;以及拓撲學,不靠測量的形狀之數學。

一個可以想像的畫面

想像一幅連點成形的圖畫,你想用一筆連續的筆畫把它描完,既不抬筆、也不讓任何一條線被重描兩次。試一下,你會摸到那條規則:每一個你經過的點,都需要一進一出兩條線——也就是偶數條線。只有起點和終點那兩個點,才可以是奇數條線。如果有三個或更多的點是「奇數」,一筆就畫不成。柯尼斯堡是四個奇數點——沒指望。

可互動的柯尼斯堡地圖:四塊陸地、七座橋;點一座橋可拆掉或重建,也可打開第八座橋。元件會顯示每塊陸地的度數,高亮連著奇數座橋的陸地並計數,並判定是否存在把每座橋恰走一次的路線:無奇數陸地時為環行,恰有兩塊時為單程,否則不存在。

它的位置

歐拉寫下它時,正值一門關於結構的新數學破曉。同樣的直覺——留住連接、丟開測量——後來長成了拓撲學,也長成他自己那條把任何立體的頂點、稜、面聯繫起來的公式 V − E + F = 2。今天每一個替你找路的地圖軟體、你叫得出名字的每一張網路,都是普魯士小城裡七座橋的遠房後代。

The original document
Original source text

§1 · 位置幾何

L. Euler · Commentarii academiae scientiarum Petropolitanae 8 (1741): 128–140 · presented 1735 (E53)
The branch of geometry that deals with magnitudes has been zealously studied throughout the past, but there is another branch that has been almost unknown up to now; Leibniz spoke of it first, calling it the “geometry of position” (geometria situs).
This geometry, Euler explains, is concerned not with measuring lengths or computing quantities but only with how things are positioned and connected. The Königsberg bridge puzzle, he says, seemed to belong to it — and offered a chance to give the almost-empty field a first real method.

§2 · 七座橋

At Königsberg in Prussia, Euler writes, the river Pregel divides the town into regions linked by seven bridges. An island, Kneiphof, sits in the river; he labels the four land regions A, B, C and D, and the seven bridges a, b, c, d, e, f and g.
The question: can one arrange a single journey that crosses each of the seven bridges once and only once? Rather than chase the many possible routes by trial, Euler sets out to decide the matter by a general method.
[ … ]

§§3–13 · 路線化為字母

Euler records a crossing by the sequence of regions it visits: a route is written as a string of capital letters, and crossing one bridge adds one letter. A journey over all seven bridges is therefore a string of eight letters — and a region reached by several bridges must appear several times in that string.
He turns the geography into bookkeeping: if a region is met by an odd number of bridges, he reasons, it must appear a fixed number of times in any complete route — about half the bridge-count, rounded up.
[ … ]

§§14–21 · 計數法則

Summing the required appearances, Euler reaches his criterion. Restated in today's terms: count, for each region, the number of bridges meeting it. If more than two regions have an odd number of bridges, no route crossing every bridge once can exist; if exactly two are odd, a route exists that must begin at one and end at the other; if none is odd, a route exists that returns to its start.
Königsberg's four regions carry 5, 3, 3 and 3 bridges — all four odd. Four odd regions exceed the two that any single journey allows, so the walk is impossible. Euler notes the same rule decides any such network at once, however many bridges it has.
Leonhard Euler · St. Petersburg Academy · presented 1735