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數學 1936

初等數論中的一個不可解問題

阿隆佐·邱奇

有些是非問題,任何程序都永遠答不出。

Choose your version
In depth · the introduction

有些問題聽起來再清楚不過——是,還是否?——可邱奇卻證明了:沒有任何配方、任何機器、任何程序,能夠回答得了它們。

核心想法

在你能問出「是不是每個問題都能照著配方解出來」之前,你得先把「配方」究竟是什麼釘死。邱奇造出了一門盡可能小的「配方語言」——λ-演算,它只有一個動作:拿一個函數,餵給它一個輸入,然後替換。接著他提議:凡是我們直覺上會稱作「可計算」的東西,恰恰就是這門小語言所能表達的。這個大膽的等式,如今被稱為「邱奇論題」。

當「計算」終於被說清楚,他就能問出一個更鋒利的問題——並得到一個驚人的答案。他找到了一個用純粹數學語言陳述的問題,它的答案總是非是即否,然而沒有任何程序,能在每一種情形下都給出正確的答案。不是「我們還沒找到」,而是「它不可能存在」。這是真正嶄新的東西:一個被證明超出一切方法之外的問題。

它是如何誕生的

1920 年代,偉大的數學家大衛·希爾伯特立下了一份綱領:把全部數學安放在一個穩固到——原則上——可以用一套機械程序去判定任何命題真假的根基之上。那是一個對「整潔、可被徹底知曉的數學」滿懷信心的夢。然後,1930 年代把它拆了個稀爛。1931 年,庫爾特·哥德爾證明:沒有任何一致的系統能證明關於算術的全部真理。幾年後,在普林斯頓工作的阿隆佐·邱奇,瞄準了希爾伯特那夢想的剩餘部分——「判定問題」。

為了攻它,邱奇和他的學生斯蒂芬·克萊尼、J·巴克利·羅瑟,花了多年發展 λ-演算。克萊尼證明它所計算的函數,與另一種對手定義(「遞迴」函數)所計算的恰好相同,這份吻合,給了邱奇底氣去宣布「可計算性」究竟是什麼。數月之後,一位名不見經傳的英國年輕人——艾倫·圖靈——從一個全然不同的方向撞上了同一堵牆:他設想出一台讀紙帶的簡單機器;而兩邊的答案,結果竟是同一個。他們合起來的裁決,便是邱奇–圖靈論題。

它為何重要

這裡,正是電腦科學拿到其根基之處——比第一台電子計算機還早了幾十年。透過把「計算」究竟意味著什麼說清楚,邱奇讓人得以嚴格地證明:電腦能做什麼、又不能做什麼。而被證明的頭一件事,便是一道極限:有些問題提得明明白白,卻沒有任何程序能夠了結它們。每當一個工具說,它一般而言無法判斷你的程式會不會崩潰、會不會陷入死迴圈,它撞上的,正是邱奇在 1936 年劃下的那道邊界。

一個可以想像的畫面

想想一份菜譜:一串有限的、毫不含糊的步驟,一位有耐心的廚師無須任何機靈就能照做,每次都做出同一道菜。邱奇的主張是:「可計算」恰恰意味著「有這樣一份菜譜」。現在,想像一個問題:「照著這份菜譜做下去,到底會不會真正做完?」對某些菜譜,你一眼就看得出答案;但邱奇證明了:不存在一份「萬能菜譜」,能在拿到任意一份菜譜時,總是正確地告訴你它會不會做完。這位檢查者得勝過每一份菜譜,包括那些巧妙地自我指涉的——而沒有任何菜譜辦得到這一點。

一個可互動的 λ-演算歸約器:挑一個小小的項,按下按鈕,每次走一步計算,把「作用於輸入的函數」替換成它的結果。大多數項都會收縮成一個整潔的最終形式(1 的後繼變成 2;1 加 2 變成 3);而有一個叫 Ω 的項,每走一步都變回它自己、永遠跑不完——一個沒有終點的小程式。

它的位置

邱奇的這篇論文,是一組非凡三重奏的一角。哥德爾(已在本館中)證明了真理跑在證明之前;邱奇證明了「可解性」自有其堅硬的極限;而艾倫·圖靈,在同一年,用他設想的機器重鑄了同一道邊界——那是此後每一台計算機的藍圖。把這三者合起來讀,1930 年代的它們,描繪出了「推理與機械所能為」的外緣。從香農的資訊論到今天的軟體,一切都活在它們圈出的那片空間之內。

The original document
Original source text

引言——這個問題

Alonzo Church · An Unsolvable Problem of Elementary Number Theory · Amer. J. Math. 58 (1936): 345–363
There is a class of problems of elementary number theory which can be stated in the form that it is required to find an effectively calculable function f of n positive integers, such that f(x₁, x₂, …, xₙ) = 2 is a necessary and sufficient condition for the truth of a certain proposition of elementary number theory involving x₁, x₂, …, xₙ as free variables.
The purpose of the present paper is to propose a definition of effective calculability which is thought to correspond satisfactorily to the somewhat vague intuitive notion in terms of which problems of this class are often stated, and to show, by means of an example, that not every problem of this class is solvable.

那個定義(邱奇論題)

§7 · The definition of effective calculability (p. 356)
We now define the notion, already discussed, of an effectively calculable function of positive integers by identifying it with the notion of a recursive function of positive integers (or of a lambda-definable function of positive integers).
This definition is thought to be justified by the considerations which follow, so far as positive justification can ever be obtained for the selection of a formal definition to correspond to an intuitive notion.

兩個定義,同一概念

On the equivalence of λ-definability and (general) recursiveness
The fact, established by the present author and S. C. Kleene, that every λ-definable function of positive integers is recursive, and conversely, is here taken as fundamental.
Thus it is shown that no more general definition of effective calculability than that proposed above can be obtained by either of two methods which naturally suggest themselves (1) by defining a function to be effectively calculable if there exists an algorithm for the calculation of its values (2) by defining a function F (of one positive integer) to be effectively calculable if, for every positive integer m, there exists a positive integer n such that F(m) = n is a provable theorem.

那個不可解問題

The negative result — a recursively unsolvable problem
It is shown that there is no recursive function of two formulas A and B, whose value is 2 or 1 according as A conv B or not. That is, the property of two well-formed formulas, that they are convertible into each other, is not recursive.
Likewise it is shown that there is no recursive function of a formula whose value tells whether or not the formula has a normal form. A problem which, like these, cannot be solved by any recursive — hence by Church's definition, any effectively calculable — function is said to be unsolvable.
[ … ]
In a companion note, the author applies the same method to Hilbert's Entscheidungsproblem, concluding that the general case of that decision problem for first-order logic is likewise unsolvable.
Alonzo Church · Princeton, New Jersey · received April 15, 1935; presented to the American Mathematical Society, April 19, 1935