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氣候科學 1938

《二氧化碳的人為產生及其對溫度的影響》

蓋伊·斯圖爾特·卡倫達

燒煤已經在讓地球變暖——這是 1938 年量出來、並算成數字的。

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In depth · the introduction

1938 年,一位蒸汽工程師,利用業餘時間,宣稱燒煤已經在讓整個地球變暖——而且,他給出了一個數字。

把這個想法拆開看

陽光曬暖地面;暖熱的地面又以看不見的紅外熱輻射「發光」,把熱散向太空。空氣裡的二氧化碳,截住其中一部分向外散逸的熱,再把一部分送回地面——於是 CO₂ 越多,地表就得運行得越暖,才能把熱的帳算平。

蓋伊·卡倫達關鍵的洞見,是回應了一個老反駁。水汽也會截熱,而且多得多,所以多數科學家斷定:多出來的 CO₂ 無關緊要。但新的測量顯示:CO₂ 恰好在水汽放行的那些波長上吸熱。加入 CO₂,就關上了那扇窗——卡倫達算出:把它翻一倍,會讓地球升溫約 2 °C。

它從哪裡來

卡倫達是一位英國的燃燒工程師,並非氣象學家。他在業餘時間,收集了世界各地約 200 個氣象臺站的氣溫記錄,蒐羅了大氣二氧化碳的舊測量,並表明:在過去半個世紀裡,二者一同上升——升溫與那氣體亦步亦趨。1938 年,他把這一切呈給了皇家氣象學會。

反響是冷淡的。辛普森爵士這樣的資深人物懷疑:一個業餘者,豈能推翻「水汽主宰氣候、CO₂ 不過是腳註」的定論。二氧化碳理論已被冷落了數十年;卡倫達幾乎獨自一人,把它帶了回來——這也正是為什麼,人為升溫的效應至今仍以他命名。

它為何重要

這是第一份真正的證據,表明人類正以燃燒化石燃料的方式,可測量地改變著整個地球的氣候。卡倫達復活了一個人人都已棄置的理論,給了它接近正確的數字,並為此後的一切定下議程:測量上升的 CO₂、釘死溫度有多敏感、把模型建起來。這一現象,以他之名,被稱作「卡倫達效應」。

一個類比

把大氣想成地球上方的一塊玻璃。陽光徑直穿過,曬暖地面;地面放出看不見的熱,被玻璃擋下一部分,讓裡頭保持溫暖——這就是溫室效應。水汽是一塊玻璃,本來就在那兒。卡倫達的要點是:CO₂ 是第二塊玻璃,它恰好遮暗了第一塊留出的那一截窗口。多加這第二塊玻璃,屋裡就變暖——哪怕只多一點點,也夠了。在下方的工具裡,把 CO₂ 往上拉,看溫度計一路攀升。

一個溫室面板:滑桿把大氣 CO₂ 從 280 升到 600 ppm;一層著色的「毯子」變厚,地表的紅外箭頭被折返而非逃逸,溫度計顯示升溫。按鈕可跳到工業化前、今天、以及 CO₂ 翻倍(約 +2 °C)。

它身處何處

卡倫達立於一條清晰的脈絡中。傅立葉第一個描述了溫室效應(1824);丁達爾測出了哪些氣體會截熱(1859);阿倫尼烏斯做了第一次 CO₂ 升溫的計算(1896,見本館)。1938 年,卡倫達以真實的觀測,復活了他們的想法。在他之後,普拉斯磨利了物理(1956),基林用他著名的曲線證明了 CO₂ 正在上升(1958,見本館),真鍋與韋瑟拉德建起了第一個可信的氣候模型(1967,見本館)。他,是阿倫尼烏斯的預言與基林的實證之間的橋。

The original document
Original source text
G. S. Callendar · Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, Vol. 64, pp. 223–240 · April 1938
The claim
By fuel combustion man has added about 150,000 million tons of carbon dioxide to the air during the past half century.
Callendar estimates that about three-quarters of that carbon dioxide has stayed in the atmosphere, raising its concentration roughly 10% since 1900 — and he argues this added gas is already warming the Earth.
The mechanism — sky radiation
Earth loses heat to space as long-wave infrared. Carbon dioxide absorbs part of it and re-radiates some back down as “sky radiation.” The theory had been set aside because water vapour, far more abundant, was thought to blanket those wavelengths already. Callendar's pivot was newer absorption data showing that CO₂ absorbs in a band where water vapour is relatively transparent — so adding CO₂ raises sky radiation even with water vapour present. Working through the atmosphere in layers, he puts the warming at roughly 2 °C for a doubling of CO₂, about 0.003 °C per year at then-current rates.
The evidence
He compiles temperature records from some 200 weather stations, finding a rise of a few tenths of a degree over the previous half-century, and matches its size and timing to the measured increase in carbon dioxide.
Conclusion
In conclusion it may be said that the combustion of fossil fuel .. is likely to prove beneficial to mankind in several ways, besides the provision of heat and power.
In the optimism of his day Callendar thought a warmer world might aid northern agriculture and keep, in his phrase, “the return of the deadly glaciers” at bay — a judgement the following century would sharply invert.
[ … ]
Royal Meteorological Society · London · 1938