JOVANA
Explore Library Glossary Getting Started Three Levels Fields How it works Mission
Join the mission
Back to the library
地球科學 1922

成岩作用中的反應原理

諾曼·L·鮑溫

把一團岩漿緩緩冷卻,它便按固定次序、一顆晶體接一顆晶體地,長成幾乎所有的火成岩。

Choose your version
In depth · the introduction

把一塊岩石熔化,再讓它緩緩冷卻,它不會一下子凍結,而是按嚴格的次序逐步凝固——而正是這個次序,讓地球有了如此繁多的岩石。

核心想法

火山岩起初是岩漿——熔融的岩石,多半是稀稀的、暗色的、像玄武岩那樣的液體。岩漿冷卻時,並不是一下子全部凍結。不同的礦物在不同溫度結晶,遵循一個固定的次序。最先出現的晶體是橄欖石那樣暗色而沉重的礦物;最後出現的——要等到冷得多的時候——是淺色的石英。

鮑溫的發現是:早期的晶體在液體冷卻時會不斷與殘餘液體反應,試圖轉變成新溫度下穩定的那種礦物。而妙處在於:如果這些早期晶體被從熔體裡「撈」走——比如沉到底部——剩下的液體就被改變了。如此一遍遍下來,一團暗色的玄武質岩漿,便能慢慢變成那種淺色、富矽、可以造出花崗岩的液體。

它是如何誕生的

很長一段時間裡,地質學家都困惑不解:火成岩種類繁多,從暗色緻密的玄武岩,到淺色輕盈的花崗岩。難道每一種都需要地球深處一個專屬的來源?那既浪費,又不大可能。

諾曼·鮑溫,二十世紀初在華盛頓卡內基研究院的地球物理實驗室工作,他把這個問題搬進了實驗室。他熔化真實礦物的混合物,在受控條件下冷卻,觀察哪些晶體最先、其次、再次出現。從這些實驗中,誕生了他 1922 年的論文,以及六年後的著作《火成岩的演化》——也帶來了那個優雅的想法:同一團岩漿,按次序結晶、並析出其早期晶體,便能成為幾乎整個岩石家族之母。

它為何重要

鮑溫把一座岩石「動物園」化成了一個單一的故事。地質學家不必再為每一種岩石另找一個起源,而可以把牠們看作同一團冷卻、分餾的岩漿沿途的不同階段。這個想法影響深遠:構成大陸大部的富矽花崗岩,可以被理解為更暗色、更深部岩漿晚期、精煉後的殘餘。它是整個火成岩地質學的組織性思想之一——儘管後來的地質學家表明,它並非故事的全部。

一個可以想像的畫面

想像緩緩凍結一杯很鹹的鹽水。最先形成的是純淨的冰晶,牠們會浮起——你把牠們撇走,剩下的水就越來越鹹,要在越來越低的溫度才凍得住。冷卻的岩漿做的是同一件事,只是把冰換成了礦物:早期的晶體被「撇」走(牠們下沉),剩下的熔體便穩穩地漂向一份不同的、更富矽的配方。同樣的起始液體,截然不同的最終岩石。

一張帶溫度滑塊的反應系列圖:當你把岩漿從約 1200°C 冷卻到 700°C,一支上橄欖石、輝石、角閃石、黑雲母依次結晶,另一支上斜長石條帶從富鈣移向富鈉,石英最後形成;側邊一條柱顯示剩下的熔體越來越富矽,依次標註為玄武岩、安山岩、流紋岩。

它的位置

一個世紀以前,赫頓(1788)與萊伊爾(1830)已表明岩石在無盡地循環、地球古老得超乎想像。鮑溫把化學放進了這個循環,解釋了熔融的岩石如何變成我們所見的火成岩家族。後來,板塊構造揭示了那些母玄武質岩漿最初從何而來——洋中脊之下熔融的地函(赫斯 1962;瓦因–馬修斯 1963)——也表明混合、混染與水,會讓鮑溫那幅清爽的圖景變得複雜。但他的反應系列,仍是每一位地質學家關於「一塊岩石如何誕生」所學到的第一課。

The original document
Original source text
N. L. Bowen · The Journal of Geology 30(3) (1922): 177–198 · Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution
Bowen sets out to explain the central puzzle of igneous petrology: why a single broad parent — a basaltic magma — gives rise to such a wide variety of rocks, from dark, dense basalts and gabbros to pale granites and rhyolites. His answer rests on a principle he draws from the laboratory's phase-equilibrium experiments on silicate melts.
The reaction principle
Crystals that form early from a cooling melt do not simply accumulate unchanged. As the temperature falls, each early crystal tends to react with the surrounding liquid, converting toward the mineral that is stable at the new, lower temperature. Crystal and liquid are continually trying to keep in step — this is the reaction relation, and it governs the whole sequence.
Two kinds of reaction series
Bowen distinguishes two patterns. In the discontinuous series, a mineral reacts with the melt and is replaced by a structurally different mineral at a definite step: olivine gives way to pyroxene, pyroxene to amphibole, amphibole to biotite. In the continuous series, a single mineral — plagioclase feldspar — stays the same mineral but changes its composition smoothly as it cools, from calcium-rich toward sodium-rich.
Fractional crystallization
The principle has a powerful consequence. If the early crystals are physically removed from the melt — settling out under gravity, or filtered away — they can no longer react back, and the leftover liquid is left progressively richer in silica and the low-temperature constituents. Step by step, one basaltic liquid evolves toward intermediate and then felsic compositions. A single parent magma can therefore yield a whole descending series of rocks.
[ … ]
Scope and the larger claim
Bowen argues that this fractionation, more than any other process, accounts for the diversity of the igneous rocks, and weighs it against rival explanations such as the wholesale mixing of magmas or large-scale assimilation of older rock. The reaction series he describes here he later consolidated into the now-famous branching diagram of his 1928 book, The Evolution of the Igneous Rocks.
Geophysical Laboratory, Washington · 1922