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生物化學 1961

天然核糖核酸酶從還原鏈的重新形成

克里斯蒂安·安芬森、埃德加·哈伯、邁克爾·塞拉 與 弗雷德·懷特

蛋白質的三維形狀,完全寫在它自己的胺基酸序列裡。

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In depth · the introduction

把一個蛋白質拆解到只剩一團沒用的亂線——再看它如何全憑自己,把自己重新打成那個分毫不差的正確形狀。

核心想法

蛋白質是一長串胺基酸「珠子」,會摺疊成精確的三維形狀,而正是形狀,讓每個蛋白質得以勝任它的工作。一個很自然的問題是:是誰來摺疊牠們?細胞裡是否有一台機器,把每條鏈一一掰到位?

安芬森與同事們證明,答案就藏在鏈本身。他們把核糖核酸酶——一種切割 RNA 的酶——徹底拆開,展成一條軟塌塌、毫無活性的細繩。然後,他們只是任它靜置。它便自行摺疊,回到原來那個能工作的形狀。除了它自身的化學,沒有任何東西把它推到那裡。原來,形狀的指令,完全寫在珠子的排列次序之中。

它是如何誕生的

1950 年代末,生物學家知道蛋白質有特定的摺疊,卻不知是什麼定下了它。核糖核酸酶是個好試驗對象:小巧、結實,由四枚內部的「釘書針」(二硫鍵)把八個含硫的胺基酸縫在一起。安芬森的團隊,在美國國立衛生研究院,剪斷全部四枚釘書針,又在強力的化學浴裡把鏈展開。酶隨即失活。

隨後,他們把化學品洗去、讓空氣重新進入。八個硫原子慢慢地再次找到正確的搭檔——在牠們可能的 105 種配對方式裡,重新結成那唯一的天然組合——酶便完全復活。一個漂亮的轉折為它蓋棺定論:當他們讓鏈在仍未摺疊時就去重新縫合,它便鎖進一團錯誤的「亂配」之中、幾乎毫無活性,可只要加一撮對的化學品,釘書針就能重排,蛋白質又穩穩落回它真正的形狀。安芬森因這一思想,獲得了 1972 年的諾貝爾化學獎。

它為何重要

這把蛋白質摺疊,變成了一個可解的物理問題:如果單憑序列就決定形狀,那麼原則上,你就能讀一個蛋白質的序列、算出它的結構。這個夢想驅動了數十年的工作,並最終被 AlphaFold 實現——它直接由序列預測一個蛋白質的三維形狀。同一條原理,也支撐著設計全新的蛋白質,以及理解那些蛋白質摺疊出錯的疾病。

一個可以想像的畫面

想像一條配重特別的項鍊,無論你怎樣把它揉皺、丟下,它總會落成同一個結——因為那個結,正是它最放鬆、能量最低的形狀。一條蛋白質鏈也是如此:它的序列經過「挑選」,使某一種特定的摺疊成為最舒服的歇息態,於是鏈便「向下」滾進去。把它以錯誤的方式纏住、鎖死,它就卡住了;只要鬆開恰到好處的一點,它每一次都會滑回同一個最終的結。

一幅自由能地形圖,有一個未摺疊的山谷和一個更深的天然山谷;滑桿加入變性劑、抹平天然山谷,於是蛋白質展開、活性計下降,而「鎖死釘書針」模式把它困在錯誤的亂配狀態裡。

它的位置

序列剛剛變得可讀——桑格在 1950 年代初拼出了胰島素的胺基酸——而沃森與克里克的 DNA,則展示了這序列如何被儲存與複製。安芬森補上了下一環:序列不只是基因的資訊,它還會把自己摺疊成一台能工作的機器。這一串思想,徑直通向今天的結構預測工具與蛋白質設計,也通向對阿茲海默症等摺疊錯誤疾病的研究。

The original document
Original source text
C. B. Anfinsen, E. Haber, M. Sela & F. H. White Jr. · Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 47 (1961): 1309–1314
The question
A folded protein has a precise three-dimensional shape on which its function depends. Does the cell need special machinery to fold it, or is the shape already dictated by the chain itself? The authors test this with an enzyme they can unfold and then watch refold in a test tube.
The protein
Bovine pancreatic ribonuclease A is a small, robust enzyme of 124 amino acids. Its single chain is cross-linked by four disulfide bonds, formed between eight cysteine residues — internal staples that hold the fold together.
Unfolding it
Treating ribonuclease with a reducing agent (β-mercaptoethanol) in concentrated urea breaks all four disulfide bonds and dissolves the compact structure into a floppy, randomly coiled chain. The enzyme loses essentially all of its activity.
Letting it refold
When the urea and reducing agent are removed and the unfolded chain is exposed to air, it slowly reoxidises. Over a few hours — after a measurable lag — enzyme activity returns to nearly its full original level, as the eight cysteines find and reform the correct, native set of disulfide bonds with no outside help.
The scrambled control
Reoxidised while still held unfolded in 8 M urea, the chain instead locks into a near-random, "scrambled" mixture of disulfide bonds and shows only about one percent of normal activity. Add back a trace of reducing agent — enough to let the bonds break and reshuffle — and the molecule relaxes to the same native structure, recovering full activity.
[ … ]
Eight cysteines can be joined into four disulfides in 105 different ways, only one of them native; random pairing would give about one part in a hundred. That the chain nonetheless reaches the native set essentially every time means the native fold is selected by stability, not by chance or by the order in which bonds happen to form.
The conclusion — later called the thermodynamic hypothesis, or Anfinsen's dogma — is that the information specifying a protein's native three-dimensional structure is contained in its amino-acid sequence, and the native fold is simply its most stable (lowest free-energy) state under physiological conditions.
National Institutes of Health, Bethesda · 1961