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地球科學 1840

《冰川研究》(Études sur les glaciers)

路易·阿加西

歐洲四散的漂礫與刻痕基岩,是一個消逝的冰期留下的指紋。

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In depth · the introduction

一塊房子大小的花崗岩巨礫,孤零零地立在田野中央,離最近的同類山脈有上百英里。是什麼把它搬到這裡的?

大地記得那場冰

北歐各地,散落著一些「不該在那裡」的東西:巨大的漂礫,遠離任何與之相配的崖壁;被磨得光滑、又被一道道平行刻痕梳過的基岩;以及長長的、亂七八糟的礫石壟。幾個世紀以來,人們把它們歸咎於諾亞的大洪水。阿加西卻看出了別的。他在阿爾卑斯親眼看過活動的冰川如何拖拽岩石、刨磨床底、堆起碎屑——而在數百英里內連一條冰川都沒有的地方,他認出了完全相同的標記。他的結論令人震驚:冰,曾經來過這裡。整片整片的冰蓋曾掩埋大地,而後消融退去,只把它們的指紋留了下來。

追著冰跑的教授

路易·阿加西是一位才華橫溢的瑞士青年博物學家,以化石魚聞名,起初他對冰川之說將信將疑。幾位年長的同行——伊尼亞斯·韋內茨,尤其是讓·德·夏龐蒂耶——一直主張阿爾卑斯的冰川昔日要大得多,他們把阿加西領進山裡去看證據。他被說服了,隨後走得比他們任何人都遠。1837 年 7 月,他沒有講聽眾期待的化石,反而宣布:一場「突如其來的酷冬」曾攫住整個星球。許多人以為他瘋了。但 1840 年,他出版了《冰川研究》,又巡遊不列顛,在蘇格蘭發現了同樣的刻痕與漂礫——懷疑者們於是一個接一個地回心轉意。

它為何重要

在阿加西之前,地球的過去多被想像成溫暖而緩緩冷卻的。他卻證明:這顆行星的氣候曾猛地跌進劇烈的寒冷期——在晚近的地質過去,存在過冰期,而且不止一次。僅這一個想法,就重塑了我們解讀腳下大地的方式,並打開了那個至今仍困擾我們的問題:是什麼讓一種氣候發生改變?從五大湖,到你的城鎮賴以建起的礫石,再到今天對一個變暖世界的憂慮——一切都可追溯到這一覺悟:氣候有著一段劇烈的歷史。

乾泥上的腳印

你撞見一片乾泥,上面印著深深的腳印——你不必看見那隻動物,就知道:在泥還軟的時候,有個沉重的傢伙走過。阿加西讀大地,也是這樣讀的。一塊遠離母岩的孤零漂礫,一面磨光帶刻痕的山坡岩石,一道彎曲的、雜亂無序的礫石壟——這些,都是冰的腳印。冰川早已不在,許久之前就融化了,可它的足跡被壓進地裡,而它們只指向一種「腳」:一張移動著的冰蓋。

一幅可互動的山谷剖面:滑桿設定氣溫;變冷會讓冰川順谷生長、馱著巨礫並推起礫石壟,變暖則讓它融退,而巨礫與礫石壟留在下方。

它在知識譜系中的位置

阿加西立於那一脈教會地球講述自身歷史的地質學家之列。詹姆斯·赫頓與查爾斯·萊爾已經證明:現在是通往過去的鑰匙——緩慢而熟悉的過程,只要給足時間,就能雕琢出整個世界。阿加西把這一課原樣用到了冰上,又添了一個萊爾不肯接受的轉折:過去曾有過遠比今日寒冷的境況。他給不出的那個成因,後來由詹姆斯·克羅爾與米盧廷·米蘭科維奇在地球軌道裡找到;而「氣候會大幅擺盪」這一發現,則成了阿倫尼烏斯、基林與現代溫室變暖科學得以建立的地基。

The original document
Original source text
Louis Agassiz · Études sur les glaciers · Neuchâtel: O. Petitpierre / Jent & Gassmann · 1840 (preceded by the Discours de Neuchâtel, 24 July 1837)
From the Discourse of Neuchâtel (1837)
Opening the annual meeting of the Swiss Society of Natural Sciences in July 1837, Agassiz set aside the fossil fishes he was expected to present and startled his audience with a far larger claim — that a single great sheet of ice had once mantled the northern world:
The earth was covered by a huge ice sheet which buried the Siberian mammoths, and reached just as far south as did the phenomenon of erratic boulders. It extended beyond the shorelines of the Mediterranean and of the Atlantic Ocean, and even covered completely North America and Asiatic Russia.
A sudden intense winter, that was also to last for ages, fell upon the globe.
[ … ]
The evidence (Études sur les glaciers, 1840)
Agassiz built his case from the marks a glacier leaves behind. Living Alpine ice, he showed, plucks and carries rock of every size — dropping far-travelled erratic blocks where it melts; it grinds its bed into polished, parallel-scratched surfaces and rounded roches moutonnées; and it bulldozes unsorted rubble into ridges, the moraines, at its flanks and snout. The same marks — erratics of identifiable Alpine granite, striated bedrock, moraine ridges — lay scattered across the lowlands of Switzerland and far beyond, tens and hundreds of kilometres from any present glacier. Only moving ice makes such marks; therefore, Agassiz argued, ice had once covered the land.
Structure of the work
The 1840 publication is a single text volume accompanied by a separate atlas of engraved plates. It moves from the structure, motion and physics of living Alpine glaciers to the traces — moraines, erratic blocks, polished and striated surfaces — by which Agassiz traced a former ice sheet across Europe, and closes with his sweeping reconstruction of a continental glaciation.
Louis Agassiz · Neuchâtel · 1840