端:通往無窮的方向
取凱萊圖,刪去一個大球,數隨著球增大而存活的無界連通分支有幾個。這個穩定的計數就是群的端數——一個擬等距不變量,因而是內稟的。驚人的定理(Hopf、Freudenthal、Stallings)是這個計數被嚴格限制:有限生成群恰有 0、1、2 或 ∞ 個端,絕不會是 3 或 17。
The four cases and what they MEAN:
0 ends <=> the group is finite.
2 ends <=> the group is virtually Z (a finite-index copy of Z).
geometrically: a line, two ways out.
inf ends <=> the group splits as a nontrivial amalgam or HNN
over a finite subgroup (STALLINGS' THEOREM)
e.g. F_2 has infinitely many ends -- its tree frays
into infinitely many branches.
1 end <=> everything else, the 'generic' case
e.g. Z^2 (delete a ball from the plane: one piece remains).
Stallings turns a coarse COUNT into an algebraic SPLITTING.瘦三角形:Gromov 雙曲性
現在是現代的核心。一個測地度量空間是 δ-雙曲的,若每個測地三角形都 δ-瘦:每條邊都落在另外兩條邊之並的 δ 鄰域內。歐氏平面中三角形可以很胖(沒有 δ 行得通);樹中三角形無限瘦(δ = 0);雙曲平面處於有限 δ。有限生成群是雙曲群,若其凱萊圖對某個 δ 是 δ-雙曲的。由第 3 篇的工作,這是擬等距不變量,故是群的性質,與生成元無關。
Who is hyperbolic?
YES finite groups (trivially), virtually free groups, F_n (delta = 0),
surface groups of genus >= 2, virtually Z,
'random' finitely presented groups (Gromov: generic => hyperbolic).
NO Z^2 : it contains a flat plane, fat triangles, so NOT hyperbolic.
=> any group containing a Z^2 subgroup is NOT hyperbolic
(Z^2 is a quasi-isometrically embedded flat -- a 'no-go' certificate).
Baumslag-Solitar BS(1,2) is not hyperbolic either.
Rule of thumb: hyperbolic = 'negatively curved' = no flats, tree-like at large scale.雙曲性何以如此值錢:它馴服了我們一路掙扎的一切。雙曲群的字問題可在線性時間內解決——Dehn 函數是線性的,故貪心的「Dehn 演算法」能縮短任何平凡的環路。它們有限表示,至多指數增長,並滿足 Tits 二擇一:每個子群或含秩 2 的自由群,或是幾乎循環——沒有奇異的中間行為。